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STRUCTURAL 
WATERPROOFING 

ARCHITECTURAL  AND 
ENGINEERING  EDITION 

THE   TRUSCON 
LABORATORIES 

WATERPROOFINGS  -  DAMPPROOFINGS 

DETROIT,  MICHIGAN,  U.  S.  A. 

1 

PRICE  50  CENTS 


STRUCTURAL 

WATERPROOFING 


A  Waterproofing  handbook  and 
reference  guide  for  the  use  of 
Architects,  Engineers,  Building 
Contractors  and  others  interested 
in  the  general  subjects  of  Water- 
proofing  and  Dampproofing 


THE,    TRUSCON 
LABORATORIES 

WATERPROOFINGS,  DAMPPROOFINGS 
TECHNICAL  COATINGS  

DETROIT,  MICHIGAN,  U.S.A. 

(Copyrighled  1919) 


Table  of  Contents 

Part  I 

CHAPTER  ONE 
Structural  Waterproofing  and  Dampproofing. 

This  chapter  is  designed  to  show  the  reader  the  relation  of  Integral  Waterproofing  to  the  general  subjects  of  Waterproofing 

and  Dampproofing. 

Waterproofing  and  Dampproofing — How  They  Differ — Where  each  should  be  Employed — Gen- 
eral Classification  of  Waterproofings  and  Dampproofings — Graphic  Chart — Classifications  of  Water  - 
proofings — Transparent,  Opaque  and  Bituminous  Coatings — Discussion  of  Various  Types  of 
Dampproofings  coming  under  these  Classifications — Classifications  of  Waterproofings — The  In- 
tegral and  Membrane  Methods — Various  types  of  Waterproofings  included  under  Integral  Method 
— Integral  Powders  and  Pastes — Various  Types  of  Powders — Colloidal  Properties  of  Waterproof- 
ing Pastes — The  Membrane  Method  of  Waterproofing — Its  Various  Usages. 


Analytical  Reasons  for  the  Necessity  of  Incorporating  a  Waterproofing  Compound 
in  Concrete. 

Importance  of  density  in  structural  materials  for  Strength  and  Resistance — Danger  of  Porosity — 
— Causes  of  Porosity — Examples — Porosity  of  Concrete — Why  Concrete  is  Porous — Function  of 
Integral  Waterproofing  in  eliminating  Porosity — Importance  of  Repellancy  in  Integral  Water- 
proofing Compounds — Importance  of  Colloidal  Properties  in  Integral  Waterproofings. 

CHAPTER  THREE 
The  Physical  Characteristics  of  Integral  Waterproofing  Compounds. 

Waterproofing  Powders  and  Pastes — Methods  of  Introducing  Waterproofing  Powders  into  Con- 
crete— Theory  underlying  Waterproofing  Powders — Behavior  of  Powders  in  practical  use — Var- 
ious types  of  Powders — Methods  of  Introducing  Waterproofing  Pastes  into  Concrete — Behavior 
of  Pastes  in  practical  application — The  Simplicity  of  Pastes — Illustrations. 

CHAPTER  FOUR 
The  Colloidal  Behavior  of  Integral  Waterproofing  Compounds. 

Significance  of  Colloidal  Characteristics  as  applied  to  Integral  Waterproofings — Difference  be- 
tween Portland  cement  and  Plaster  of  Paris — Presence  of  Colloids  in  Portland  Cement — Semi- 
Waterproofness  of  Portland  Cement  Mortar  due  to  presence  of  Colloids — Addition  of  sufficient 
more  Colloid  to  produce  complete  Waterproofness — Types  of  Colloidal  Material  which  will  pro- 
duce most  complete  and  permanent  Waterproofing  results — Manner  in  which  they  should  be 
introduced  into  the  concrete. 

CHAPTER  FIVE 
Influence  of  Water  on  Concrete 

By  Frank  Burton,  Department  of  Buildings,  Detroit,  Mich. 

Influence  of  Wetting  and  Drying  of  Concrete  on  its  Physical  Properties — Colloidal  Nature  of 
Portland  Cement — Experiments  by  Campbell  fa  White  on  Expansion  and  Contraction  of  Concrete 
due  to  alternate  Wetting  and  Drying — Similar  experiments  by  Considere — An  interesting  prac- 
tical Example — Further  observations  by  Professor  White — Curves  showing  variation  in  Tensile 
Strength  of  Concrete  on  Wetting  and  Drying — Importance  of  Subject  as  related  to  entire  Field 
of  Concrete  Construction — Theoretical  Considerations — More  Practical  Examples. 

CHAPTER  SIX 

Integral  Waterproofing  with  Particular  Reference  to  the  Mass  Method. 
By  A.  D.  Hyman,  Waterproofing  Engineer,  New  York  City. 

The  Function  of  Waterproofing  Compounds — What  Waterproofing  cannot  do — Composition  of 
Concrete — Proper  Proportioning — Amount  of  Gauging  Water — Correct  Proportioning  of  Water- 
proofing Compounds — Cautions  on  Concreting  Work — Importance  of  Proper  Bond  in  Construction 
Joints — How  to  provide  proper  Bond — Necessity  of  Removing  Water  Pressure  during  Construc- 
tion— How  this  can  be  done — Six  Important  Considerations  in  Waterproofing. 


CHAPTER  SEVEN 
Waterproofing  Stucco. 

Why  Waterproofing  for  Stucco  is  Necessary — Penetration  of  Moisture  into  Pores  of  Stucco —  . 
Effect  on  Stucco  of  Freezing  of  this  Moisture — How  Waterproofing  relieves  this  condition — 
Porosity  of  Stucco  as  demonstrated  by  Test — Circumstances  of  Test — Practical  Illustrations  of 
Unwaterproofed  Stucco. 

CHAPTER  EIGHT 
Integral  Waterproofing  by  the\Cement  Coating  Process. 

By  A.  D.  Hyman,  Chief  Engineer  of  the  Waterproofing  &  Construction  Co., 
New  York  City. 

Introductory  Discussion — The  Cement  Coating  Process — Preliminary  Steps — Preparation  of 
Surface  for  Bond — Preparation  of  Plaster  Coat — Plaster  Coat  Ingredients  and  their  Properties — 
Thickness  of  Coat  for  Walls  and  Floor — Necessity  of  Continuity  of  Plaster  Coat — Necessity  of 
Insulating  Waterproofing  under  Abnormal  Conditions — Construction  Joints  between  different 
days'  work — How  to  Eliminate  Weaknesses  from  appearing — Bleeding  Walls  to  Remove  Pressure 
— Construction  of  Drainage  System  to  eliminate  pressure — Concluding  Comments. 

CHAPTER  NINE 
Practical  Application  of  Waterproofed  Plaster  Coat. 

Manner  in  which  Wall  should  be  Roughened — Illustration  of  Roughened  Wall — Why  a  %"  Water- 
proofed Plaster  Coat  is  Adequate — Roughening  of  Columns  and  Footings — Application  of  Water- 
proofed Plaster  Coat  to  Columns  and  Footings  to  Prevent  Electrolysis — Results  of  Plaster  Coat 
Waterproofing — A  Typical  Illustration. 

CHAPTER  TEN 
Relieving  Pressure  Before  Application  of  a  Waterproofed  Plaster  Coat. 

Method  of  Draining — Bleed  Pipes — Siphon — Central  Sumps — Complete  Work  of  Drainage — 
Bleeding  Wall  to  eliminate  Slow  Seepage — Practical  Illustration  of  Bleed  Pipes — Results  of  fail- 
ure to  Relieve  Pressure. 

CHAPTER  ELEVEN 
Integral  Waterproofing  a  Consistent  Principle  of  Engineering. 

The  use  of  the  Safety  Factor  in  Engineering  Design — Its  application  to  Waterproofing — Engineer- 
ing not  an  exact  Science — Safety  Factor  in  Reality  Factor  of  Ignorance — Definition  of  Exact 
Sciences — Illustrations — Method  of  Procedure  in  Exact  Sciences — How  Engineering  differs  from 
Exact  Science — Why  the  Factor  of  Safety  is  necessary  in  Engineering — Concrete  offers  greatest 
Variation  of  all  Building  Materials — Why  it  does  so — Why  the  Safety  Factor  Principle  is  par- 
ticularly applicable  to  Concrete  Construction — Direct  bearing  of  this  to  Waterproofing  of  Con- 
crete— Concluding  Review  and  Discussion. 

Part  II 

Discussion  of  Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated. 

Nature  of  Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated — How  Used — Method  of  Incorporating 
Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste  Concentrated  in  the  Concrete — Its  Economy — Colloidal  Nature 
of  Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated — Effect  on  Concrete — General  Directions  for 
Use — Table  of  Quantities — Illustrations — Reports — Testimonial  Letters — Prominent  Users. 

General  Specifications  for  the  Use  of  Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated. 

Specifications  for  Waterproofing  Mass  Concrete  by  Integral  Method — Applicable  to  Standpipes, 
Cisterns,  Reservoirs,  Foundations  and  Similar  Structures — Specifications  for  Waterproofing  and 
General  Masonry  Structures  by  means  of  Waterproofed  Plaster  Coat — Applicable  fo  Cisterns, 
Reservoirs,  Foundations,  Basements,  Tunnels,  Subways  and  Similar  Structures — Specifications 
for  Waterproofing  Cement  Stucco. 

Part  III 

Representative  Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated,  Installations. 


Preface 


HIS  is  the  era  of  concrete  construction.  For  a  number  of  years 
past  the  use  of  concrete  as  a  building  material  has  been  grow- 
ing by  leaps  and  bounds.  It  is  most  natural  that  this  should  be 
the  case.  Concrete  is  the  most  ideal  building  material  known. 
It  is  durable  and  fireproof.  It  provides  rapidity  in  construction 
and  economy  in  labor.  It  has,  in  fact,  few  limitations. 

Its  natural  absorbent  property,  however,  had  a  tendency  to 
limit  its  use  in  certain  directions.  There  seemed  to  be  no  reason,  though,  why 
this  difficulty  could  not  be  overcome  and  the  use  of  concrete  further  extended, 
by  eliminating  this  absorbent  characteristic.  It  seemed  logical  that  the  intro- 
duction of  some  element  into  the  concrete  during  the  process  of  mixing,  would 
accomplish  this  purpose  and  add  to  the  other  splendid  qualities  of  concrete,  the 
highest  degree  of  impermeability.  As  later  events  demonstrated,  this  proved 
true,  and  it  is  when  in  a  waterproofed  state  that  concrete  finds  its  highest  and 
most  complete  expression.  Out  of  this  idea  itself,  however,  together  with  its 
subsequent  development,  has  grown  the  science  of  integral  waterproofing. 

But  because  of  the  comparative  newness  of  integral  waterproofing  as  a  science, 
there  has  been  little  organized  literature  or  data  on  the  subject.  The  architect 
and  engineer,  faced  with  a  condition  where  waterproofing  seemed  necessary,  or 
desiring  to  extend  his  use  of  concrete  by  some  effective  system  of  waterproofing, 
has  found  difficulty  in  knowing  where  to  turn  for  instruction  or  suggestion.  In 
other  words,  the  science  of  waterproofing  has  lacked  a  handbook  to  which  the 
builder  could  turn  as  a  reference  guide. 

This  Architectural  and  Engineering  Edition  of  Structural  Waterproofing  is  an 
endeavor  to  supply  this  deficiency  and  to  place  at  the  disposal  of  the  architect 
and  engineer,  a  thoroughly  organized  and  complete  handbook  upon  the  entire 
subject  of  integral  waterproofing.  The  theory  underlying  waterproofing,  the 
nature  of  waterproofing  compounds,  a  discussion  of  their  chemical  and  physical 
characteristics  and  their  practical  use  in  mass  concrete,  cement  plaster  coat  and 
stucco,  are  all  fully  dealt  with  in  the  various  chapters  of  this  book.  We  hope 
very  sincerely  that  Structural  Waterproofing  will  fulfill  a  much  needed  require- 
ment in  supplying  full  information  upon  the  subject,  to  all  persons  who  may 
be  interested. 

We  desire  to  make  acknowledgment  to  Mr.  Frank  Burton  of  Detroit  and  Messrs. 
H.  A.  and  A.  D.  Hyman  of  New  York  City  for  the  valuable  chapters  which 
they  contributed  to  Structural  Waterproofing. 


THE  TRUSCON 
LABORATORIES 


CHAPTER  ONE 

Structural  Waterproofing  and 
Dampproofing 

This  chapter  is  designed  to  show  the  reader  the  relation  of  Integral  Waterproofing  to  the  general 
subjects  of  Waterproofing  and  Dampproofing 

Waterproofing  and  Dampproofing — How  They  Differ — Where  each  should  be  Employed — Gen- 
eral Classification  of  Waterproofings  and  Dampproofings— Graphic  Chart — Classifications  of 
Waterproofings — Transparent,  Opaque  and  Bituminous  Coatings — Discussion  of  Various  Types  of 
Dampproofings  coming  under  these  Classifications — Classifications  of  Waterproofings — The  In- 
tegral and  Membrane  Methods — Various  types  of  Waterproofings  included  under  Integral  Method 
— Integral  Powders  and  Pastes — Various  Types  of  Powders — Colloidal  Properties  of  Waterproof- 
ing Pastes — The  Membrane  Method  of  Waterproofing — Its  Various  Usages. 


The  general  subject  of  structural  dampproofing 
and  waterproofing  as  it  confronts  us  today  in- 
volves the  methods  and  means  of  protecting 
structural  materials  against  the  disintegrating 
action  of  water.  Masonry  building  materials 
are  generally  more  or  less  porous  and  capillary 
in  their  structure,  permitting  the  absorption  and 
permeation  of  water.  The  presence  of  water  in 
masonry  is  structurally  injurious,  due  to  its 
solvent  action  on  any  soluble  content,  but  more 
particularly  its  disintegrating  action  by  the 
expansive  force  that  is  manifested  by  the  congeal- 
ing of  the  water  on  freezing.  Water  that  is  drawn 
into  foundations  from  the  surrounding  soil  grad- 
ually ascends  into  the  structure,  due  to  the  cap- 
illary nature  of  the  constructive  materials,  and 
finally  permeates  the  entire  wall,  producing 
damp  and  clammy  conditions  that  foster  and 
spread  disease.  While  the  subject  of  structural 
waterproofing  and  dampproofing  deals  primarily 
with  the  prevention  of  gradual  decay  and  dis- 
integration of  structural  materials,  it  also  per- 
forms the  useful  and  necessary  function  of  pro- 
viding more  hygienic  conditions  for  the  benefit 
of  humanity  in  general. 

The  subject  of  the  protection  of  structural 
materials  against  the  disintegrating  action  of 
water  should,  for  the  most  comprehensive  under- 
standing, be  considered  under  the  two  general 
divisions  of  Waterproofing  and  Dampproofing. 
The  term  Waterproofing  should  correctly  be 
confined  to  the  consideration  of  methods  and 
means  of  protecting  subterra  construction  and 
structures  intended  for  retaining  and  containing 
water  under  and  against  hydrostatic  head. 
Consistent  with  this  definition,  the  term  Water- 
proofing as  a  part  of  this  great  subject  would 
apply  directly  to  the  methods  of  treating  founda- 
tions, tunnels,  reservoirs,  cisterns,  standpipes 
and  similar  construction.  The  term  Dampproof- 
ing should  correctly  be  confined  to  the  considera- 


tion of  the  methods  and  means  of  keeping  water 
and  dampness  out  of  the  superstructure  of 
buildings.  In  accordance  with  this  definition, 
dampproofing  should  involve  the  various  methods 
of  treating  exposed  walls  above  grade  line  to 
avoid  the  entrance  or  penetration  of  moisture 
and  dampness  into  the  structure. 

While  there  is  a  slight  opportunity  for  dis- 
cussion on  the  absolute  literal  correctness  of  the 
above  definitions,  nevertheless  this  division  of 
the  general  subject  serves  most  admirably  to 
differentiate  between  waterproofing  conditions 
and  dampproofing  requirements  and  to  qualify 
the  various  materials  into  either  waterproofing 
or  dampproofing  products. 

It  was  only  a  few  years  ago  that  in  the  absence 
of  any  comprehensive  understanding  of  this 
subject,  transparent  washes  were  recommended 
in  the  literature  of  manufacturers  for  treating 
foundations,  tunnels  and  general  subterra  con- 
struction, with  no  apparent  recognition  that 
such  materials  have  absolutely  no  application 
to  these  severe  requirements.  By  making  the 
above  separation  of  this  general  subject,  and 
with  further  sub-division  of  each  individual  part, 
the  various  materials  can  be  very  simply  classi- 
fied and  confined  for  treating  conditions  where 
they  have  a  useful  and  valuable  application. 

In  a  paper  from  one  of  our  larger  universities, 
which  recently  appeared  in  the  technical  press, 
the  following  statement  was  included  in  the 
introductory  remarks :  "Waterproofing  materials 
for  use  with  concrete  are  divided  into  four  gen- 
eral classes  —  Membrane,  Integral,  Surface 
Washes,  and  Oil  Paint  Films."  Such  a  statement 
can  only  be  confusing,  as  it  does  not  suggest  or 
indicate  any  differentiation  between  the  proper- 
ties of  the  various  materials  which  are  suggested 
and  is,  in  fact,  no  more  progressive  than  the 
general  understanding  of  the  subject  a  few  years 


«K  unfortunate  and 


ago  whcj"i  Jit/w&s  {ir?  •& 
chaotic  condition. 

In  the  absence  of  a  classification  of  this 
subject,  it  is  very  confusing  to  the  engineer  or 
architect  to  know  exactly  what  material  to  select 
for  any  particular  condition.  Naturally,  each 
particular  product  or  method  has  some  special 
properties  that  make  it  advantageous  for  certain 
conditions,  and  at  the  same  time  may  have 
limitations  that  would  correctly  prohibit  its  use 
under  certain  requirements.  Is  it  not  advan- 
tageous to  the  development  of  this  important 
subject  to  carefully  consider  the  properties  and 
behavior  of  each  particular  method,  and  so 
classify  it  as  to  be  able  to  select  the  material 
and  the  method  that  best  suit  a  certain  fixed 
condition? 

The  architect  or  engineer  will  find  the  follow- 
ing classification  of  this  subject  a  big  advantage 
in  preparing  his  specifications  and  also  in  his 
general  consulting  work.  As  an  example  :  If  a 
client  should  inquire  whether  a  simple  trans- 
parent wash  was  applicable  for  treating  the  in- 
terior of  a  reservoir  of  considerable  depth,  he 
could  very  much  simplify  his  reply  with  the 
advice  that  the  method  suggested  by  the  client 
is  fundamentally  a  dampproofing  treatment  and 
confined  to  conditions  subjected  only  to  damp- 
ness and  has  no  application  to  a  condition  where 
hydrostatic  pressure  is  to  be  withstood.  The 
client  can  be  easily  made  to  recognize  that  his 
condition  is  literally  a  waterproofing  require- 
ment and  that  he  must  employ  a  method  that  has 
actual  waterproofing  value  and  not  simply  a 
material  with  such  limitations  as  will  only  per- 
mit its  use  for  dampproofing  requirements. 

Both  the  subject  of  dampproofing  and  of 
waterproofing  can  be  sub-divided  into  various 
sub-headings,  each  of  which  has  characteristic 
properties  and  insures  quite  a  complete  and 
comprehensive  understanding  of  the  full  subject. 
The  following  discussion  develops  quite  a  full 
sub-classification  of  the  two  general  subjects, 
with  comment  on  the  distinctive  properties  and 
values  of  each  separate  sub-class. 

The  subject  of  dampproofing,  which  we  have 
already  defined  as  correctly  applying  to  a  con- 
sideration of  methods  and  means  of  keeping 
water  and  dampness  out  of  the  superstructure  of 
buildings,  may  be  very  simply  sub-divided  into 
the  three  following  classes,  viz: 

A  —  Transparent  Coatings  and  Treatments. 
B  —  Opaque  Decorative  Coatings. 
C  —  Special  Bituminous  Coatings. 

This  classification  is  quite  a  complete  one  and 
includes  practically  every  treatment  that  has 


ever  been  suggested  or  used  to  any  practical 
extent  in  connection  with  the  treatment  of 
exterior  exposed  walls  above  grade  line. 

Again,  the  above  classification  of  damp- 
proofing  treatments  may  be  further  sub-divided. 
The  method  involving  the  use  of  transparent 
coatings  may  be  sub-divided  into  three  quite 
characteristic  sub-heads,  viz: 

(1) — The  Sylvester  Process. 
(2) — Hot  Paramne  and  Waxes. 
(3) — Special  Proprietary  Products. 

(1)  The   Sylvester   Process    is   one    of   the 
oldest   dampproofing   treatments,   and   while   it 
has  been  used  to  some  practical  extent,  it  is  at 
the  present  time  very  seldom  considered.     The 
Sylvester    Process    provides    for    the    alternate 
treatment    of   a    porous    masonry  surface  with 
solutions   of   soap  and  alum.      These  solutions 
are  preferably  applied  hot  so  as  to  insure  good 
penetration  and  to  accelerate  the  chemical  re- 
action between  the  two  materials.     The  theory 
of  this  treatment  is  to  provide  by  inter-reaction 
of  the  soap  and  the  alum,  an  aluminum  salt  of 
the   fat  contained   in   the   soap,   which  will  be 
deposited  in  the  pores  of  the  surface  and  tend 
to  repel  the  moisture.    While  from  a  theoretical 
standpoint,  the  treatment  may  appear  to  be  quite 
an  effective  one,  yet  on  a  practical  consideration 
it  is  not  very  satisfactory.     It  is  necessary  to 
make  a  number  of  alternate  applications  of  the 
soap  and  alum  in  order  to  obtain  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  the  aluminum  soap  to  provide  any 
repellent  or  dampproofing  action.     The  number 
of  coats  required  is  made  necessary  by  the  fact 
that  the  conditions  of  contact  between  the  wash 
applications  of  soap  and  alum  are  not  such  as  to 
insure  a  good,  thorough  chemical  reaction  be- 
tween the  two  materials,  and  there  is  necessarily 
considerably  soluble  material  left  in  the  pores 
that  is  not  utilized,  due  to  the  poor  and  inade- 
quate physical  contact. 

(2)  The  second  classification  of  transparent 
dampproofing  treatments  covers  all  of  the  var- 
ious methods  which   have   been   proposed   and 
used,    involving    the    heating    of   the    masonry 
surface  and  the  application  of  melted  paraffine 
or  wax.     While  a  dampproofing   treatment   of 
this  type  can  be  made  very  effective,  its  applica- 
cation    is    necessarily    limited    to    only    special 
cases  where  the  high  cost  of  its  application  is 
not  prohibitory.     The  application  can  only  be 
made  slowly,  as  the  surface  has  to  be  heated 
with  a  blow  torch,  and  only  when  at  the  proper 
temperature  can  the  melted  paraffine  or  wax  be 
applied,   to  insure  the  proper  penetration   and 


A-Transparent  Coatings  and 
Treatments 


{  DAMPPROOFING 


Protection  of 

Structural 

Materials 

Against 

Disintegrating 

Action  of 

Water 


B-Opaque  Decorative 
Coatings 


(1)  Sylvester  Process 

,    (2)  Hot  Paraffins  and 
Waxes 

(3)  Special  Proprietary 
Products 

(1)  Various  Cement 
Washes 

(2)  Common  Oil 
Coatings 

(3)  Special  Proprie- 
tary Cement 
Coatings 


C-Special  Bituminous  Coatings 

(1)  Finely  powdered 
dry  compounds 
mixed  with  dry 
cement 


A-Integral 


(WATERPROOFING 


(2)  Compounds 
either  in  liquid 
or  paste  form 
added  to  water 
used  to  temper 
concrete 


(a)  Repellent 
\    (b)  Non-repellent 
(c)  Metallic 

(a)  Unsaturated 
Colloids 

(b)  Extended 
Colloids 

(c)  Concentrated 
Colloids 


f  (1)  Coal  Tar  Pitch 
B-Membrane      <    (2)  Natural  Asphalts 

I,  (3)  Special  Bituminous  Compositions 


absorption   of  the   repellent   material   into   the 
pores  of  the  surface. 

A  very  representative  incident  of  the  use  of 
this  method  for  preserving  masonry  exposed  to 
weather  exposure  is  the  application  to  Cleo- 
patra's Needle  in  Grand  Central  Park,  New 
York  City,  in  1885.  This  obelisk,  while  resisting 
the  climatic  exposure  of  old  Egypt  for  ages,  soon 
developed  indications  of  rapid  superficial  decay 
when  subjected  to  the  climatic  conditions  char- 
acteristic of  our  country.  This  stone  was  quite 
absorbent  and  as  a  result  of  the  freezing  of 
water  in  the  pores,  the  outer  surface  of  the  stone 
was  slowly  disintegrating.  In  cleaning  the 
obelisk  previous  to  the  application  of  the  hot 
paraffine,  about  two  and  one-half  barrels  of 
pieces,  weighing  a  total  of  nearly  780  pounds, 
were  removed.  Some  of  the  pieces  were  so  much 
decayed  and  disintegrated  that  they  would 
crumble  easily  when  removed  from  the  surface. 
After  removing  the  outer  crust  of  disintegrated 
stone,  the  entire  surface  of  about  270  square 
yards  was  heated  and  then  immediately  treated 
with  a  hot  solution  of  paraffine. 

(3)  The  third  class  of  transparent  treat- 
ments, viz:  Special  Proprietary  Products,  sug- 
gests quite  an  interesting  and  unfortunate 
chapter  in  the  history  of  the  development  of 
the  general  subject  of  the  preservation  of  struc- 
tural work  against  the  disintegrating  action  of 


water.  Following  the  general  recognition  that 
one  of  the  objections  to  concrete  construction 
was  its  absorbent  nature,  there  appeared  on  the 
market  an  almost  innumerable  number  of  trans- 
parent liquids  presented  with  the  most  extra- 
ordinary and  extravagant  claims.  According  to 
the  literature  of  the  several  manufacturers  of 
these  products,  there  was  absolutely  no  condi- 
tion associated  with  the  general  protection 
against  water  in  constructional  work  that  could 
not  be  very  effectively  and  efficiently  overcome 
by  a  simple  application  of  their  product.  There 
was  no  intent  or  indication  of  a  proper  recogni- 
tion of  the  limitations  of  a  transparent  treat- 
ment, but  they  were  recommended  without 
qualification  for  tunnels,  foundations,  reservoirs, 
tanks,  etc.,  in  fact,  every  single  condition  that 
would  require  waterproofing  treatment  would 
find  the  manufacturers  of  these  transparent 
treatments  recommending  their  materials. 

It  will  always  be  the  subject  of  a  great  deal  of 
regret  on  the  part  of  all  who  are  vitally  inter- 
ested in  the  scientific  development  of  this  im- 
portant subject,  that  the  manufacturers  of 
these  various  transparent  treatments  did  not 
exercise  greater  judgment  in  recognizing  the 
limitations  of  their  products.  They  were  un- 
fortunately prompted  alone  by  the  mercenary 
instinct  of  a  quick  return  and  profit  on  the  sale 
of  their  material,  not  realizing  that  the  ineffec- 


tive  and  unsatisfactory  results  which  would 
follow  the  use  of  their  materials  would  tend  to 
establish  a  general  skepticism,  and,  in  fact,  dis- 
belief in  the  efficiency  and  value  of  all  water- 
proofing materials. 

Practically  all  of  the  earlier  proprietary 
transparent  dampproofing  products  were  nothing 
more  or  less  than  low  melting  point  paraffines  or 
waxes  which  had  been  melted  and  fluxed  back 
into  a  volatile  solvent.  The  theory  of  such  a 
preparation  is  entirely  correct,  but  unfortunately 
these  several  paraffines  and  waxes  can  only  be 
dissolved  in  solvents  to  a  very  limited  extent, 
producing  a  product  that  actually  carries  a  very 
small  amount  of  repellent  base  and  an  excessive 
amount  of  volatile  material.  On  application  to 
the  surface,  practically  90  to  95  per  cent  of  the 
original  material  would  be  lost  by  evaporation, 
leaving  only  a  small  residue  deposited  in  the  pores 
of  the  surface.  It  would  require  a  number  of 
repeated  applications  in  order  to  leave  deposited 
in  the  pores  of  the  surface  a  sufficient  quantity 
of  the  repellent  base  to  provide  any  efficient 
dampproofing  results.  Of  course,  it  was  usually 
recommended  with  these  materials  that  two 
coats  were  all  that  was  necessary  in  order  to 
provide  efficient  dampproofing  results. 

There  were  a  few  materials  that  involved  a 
little  more  technical  effort  than  the  simple  so- 
lution of  paraffine  or  waxes,  but  in  the  majority 
of  cases  only  a  small  amount  of  actual  total 
solids  was  introduced  and  not  sufficient  to  im- 
part any  satisfactory  dampproofing  results  to 
the  surface  over  which  they  were  applied. 

The  reason  for  not  making  more  successful 
early  progress  on  a  transparent  dampproofing 
treatment  of  this  character  is  unquestionably 
the  fact  that  the  condition  is  by  no  means  a 
simple  one.  A  satisfactory  transparent  damp- 
proofing  material  that  is  applied  cold  with  a 
brush  must  be  one  that  is  practically  colorless, 
as  any  tendency  for  the  material  to  stain  or  dis- 
color the  surface  is  highly  objectionable.  Nature, 
unfortunately,  has  not  provided  many  materials 
that  offer  possibilities  for  producing  a  product 
of  this  kind.  The  majority  of  products,  when 
used  in  quantity  sufficient  to  provide  the  neces- 
sary amount  of  total  solids  to  give  efficient 
dampproofing  results,  will  impart  such  a  color 
to  the  material  that  when  used  over  stone  that 
is  more  or  less  sensitive  to  discoloration,  it  will 
become  badly  stained,  and  the  injury  will  be 
more  serious  than  the  difficulty  which  it  was 
originally  intended  to  overcome. 

The  repellent  base  held  in  solution  in  such 
transparent  materials  must  also  be  of  such  a 
nature  as  will  be  more  or  less  transparent  after 
the  volatile  material  has  evaporated.  This  is  an 
essential  requirement,  as  the  transparent  treat- 
ments are  used  quite  generally  over  porous 


brick  or  stone  surfaces  of  various  colors,  and  if 
the  coating  tends  to  leave  a  white  deposit  after 
evaporation  of  the  volatile  material,  it  will 
stand  out  in  contrast  to  the  colored  masonry 
surface  and  appear  as  if  the  surface  had  a  slight 
efflorescence. 

The  difficulties  which  the  requirements  for 
such  a  material  presented,  and  the  complaints 
which  followed  the  use  of  so  many  of  the  in- 
ferior products,  have  resulted  in  the  slow  disap- 
pearance of  a  great  number  of  products  that 
originally  appeared,  and  today  there  are  only 
two  or  three  of  the  materials  on  the  market 
that  were  numbered  originally  among  the  great 
list  of  special  products. 

It  is  a  problem  that  has  involved  a  great  deal 
of  careful  scientific  investigation  in  order  to 
select  such  materials  which,  due  to  their  chem- 
ical affinity,  can  be  so  combined  as  to  produce  a 
synthetic  base  which  has  the  properties  of  dis- 
solving in  the  combination  of  solvents,  to  yield 
a  product  that  will  contain  a  comparatively 
high  percentage  of  base  so  that  when  applied  to 
a  surface  and  the  volatile  material  has  evapo- 
rated, there  will  be  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
material  deposited  in  the  pores  to  fill  them  and 
change  their  natural  absorbent  nature  to  a 
negative  repellent  action. 

B — The  second  class  of  general  dampproof- 
ing treatments,  viz:  Opaque  Decorative  Coat- 
ings, may  be  sub-divided  similarly  to  transpar- 
ent treatments,  affording  a  very  simple  con- 
sideration of  this  important  part  of  the  general 
subject  of  dampproofing.  This  classification  is 
as  follows: 

B — Opaque  Decorative  Coatings. 

(1) — Various  Cement  Washes. 

(2) — Common  Oil  Coatings. 

(3) — Special  Proprietary  Cement  Coatings. 

(1)  The  first  conception  of  applying  an 
opaque  decorative  treatment  is  evidenced  in  the 
use  of  a  mixture  of  cement  and  water  applied 
with  a  brush,  for  the  dual  purpose  of  obscuring 
any  imperfections  in  the  surface  and  giving  an 
outer  shell  that  is  of  a  denser  texture,  so  as  to 
protect  the  masonry  from  the  penetration  or 
absorption  of  moisture.  While  this  treatment 
is  more  or  less  effective  in  uniforming  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  surface,  it  hardly  possesses  any 
great  or  efficient  dampproofing  results.  This  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  cement  is  mixed  with 
water  and  when  applied  the  water  occupies  a 
definite  volume  and  on  evaporation  leaves  the 
surface  full  of  small  microscopic  pores  and  aper- 
tures through  which  water  can  penetrate. 

There  is  also  considerable  trouble  experi- 
enced in  using  a  cement  wash,  due  to  the  diffi- 
culty in  obtaining  a  satisfactory  bond  to  the 
masonry  surface,  if  the  material  is  not  applied 


to  concrete  that  has  not  fully  hardened.  The 
usual  result  with  a  cement  wash  is  that  the 
coating  will  be  efficient  for  a  little  time  but 
after  having  been  subjected  to  frost  when  thor- 
oughly wet  and  saturated,  it  will  be  forced  off 
from  the  surface  by  the  expansion  of  the  water 
on  freezing,  and  any  possible  efficiency  and 
value  which  it  might  originally  have  contributed 
entirely  destroyed. 

(2)  The  second  class  of  opaque  dampproof- 
ing  treatments,  viz.:  ordinary  oil  paints,  has 
been  tried  at  various  times  with  unsatisfactory 
results.  This  is  very  obviously  due  to  the  fact 
that  in  contrast  to  a  wood  or  metal  surface,  a 
concrete  surface  is  chemically  active,  due  to  the 
presence  of  alkali.  When  a  common  oil  paint  is 
applied  over  wood  or  metal,  there  is  no  chemical 
influence  to  in  any  way  interfere  with  its  nor- 
mal process  of  drying  to  a  tough,  elastic  linoxyn 
film.  When  such  a  product  is  applied  over  a 
concrete  surface,  the  condition  is  distinctly 
different. 

In  the  natural  process  of  hydration  of  Port- 
land cement,  there  is  developed  approximately 
37  per  cent  of  calcium  hydroxide.  It  is  the  pres- 
ence of  this  calcium  hydroxide  that  contributes 
a  distinctive  alkaline  nature  to  concrete  sur- 
faces. Any  drying  oil,  such  as  linseed,  is  easily 
decomposed  when  in  contact  with  an  alkali, 
tending  to  form  a  soap  of  the  metal  represented 
in  the  alkali.  In  accordance  with  this  natural 
characteristic  of  a  drying  oil,  the  calcium 
hydroxide  reacts  with  the  oil,  forming  a  calcium 
soap  which  entirely  destroys  the  characteristic 
toughness,  elasticity  and  durability  of  the  prod- 
uct. In  place  of  a  weather-resisting  and  pre- 
serving paint  film,  as  would  result  if  the  mate- 
rial were  applied  over  a  wood  or  metal  surface, 
only  a  sticky,  incoherent,  easily-perishing  coat- 
ing is  left,  presenting  absolutely  no  damp- 
proofing  or  uniforming  effect. 

Periodically  we  hear  from  various  sources 
comment  in  regard  to  the  use  of  lead  and  oil 
on  concrete,  which  may  be  suggested  by  an 
occasional  application  that  is  more  or  less  satis- 
factory. Actually,  bitter  experience  has  indi- 
cated that  an  oil  paint  is  not  adapted  in  its 
constituency  to  a  concrete  surface,  and  so  long 
as  a  concrete  surface  is  characterized  by  the 
presence  of  alkali — which,  in  fact,  is  an  in- 
separable property — it  will  be  impractical  to 
attempt  to  use  a  product  containing  an  oil  that 
is  so  easily  saponified. 

Common  oil  paint  is  generally  characterized 
by  a  glossy  texture  which  is  an  objection  for 
treating  concrete  surfaces.  There  is  stability, 
strength  and  endurance  associated  with  a 
masonry  surface,  and  it  is  not  consistent  with 
good  architectural  treatment  to  apply  an  oil 
paint  coating  that  will  impart  a  glossy  appear- 


ance   so   strongly   contrasted    to    the   naturally 
soft,  flat  texture  of  masonry  surfaces. 

(3)  The  third  method  of  opaque  damp- 
proofing  treatments,  viz.:  specialized  cement 
coatings,  offers  the  greatest  opportunity  for 
producing  effective  and  satisfactory  damp- 
proofing  results.  With  a  full  knowledge  of  the 
physical  and  chemical  characteristics  of  a  con- 
crete or  masonry  surface,  it  is  possible  to  select 
raw  materials  and  so  treat  and  combine  them 
as  to  produce  a  product  that  is  in  every  sense  a 
specialized  cement  coating.  Such  a  product 
cannot  be  produced  by  any  effort  to  re-adapt  a 
common  oil  paint,  but  must  be  built  up  funda- 
mentally from  special  materials  which,  due  to 
their  physical  characteristics  and  chemical 
properties,  are  suited  for  the  production  of  a 
strictly  specialized  product. 

C — The  third  class  of  dampproofing  treat- 
ment involves  the  application  of  bituminous 
products  to  the  interior  of  exposed  walls.  The 
treatments  in  the  first  two  classes  as  outlined 
above  are  applied  to  the  exterior  of  the  super- 
structure, while  the  special  bituminous  prod- 
ucts are  distinct  in  being  applied  to  the  inside 
of  the  wall. 

These  products  are  black  in  appearance  and 
usually  of  quite  heavy  body,  being  applied  with 
a  brush  so  as  to  provide  a  thoroughly  contin- 
uous coating.  They  are  characterized  by  indefi- 
nitely remaining  tacky,  and  provide  bond  for  a 
coat  of  plaster  applied  directly  to  the  coated 
surface.  It  is  to  be  emphasized  that  the  prime 
purpose  in  the  application  of  such  products  to 
interior  walls  is  for  dampproofing  results,  and 
the  fact  that  they  have  the  associated  property  of 
bonding  a  coat  of  plaster  is  distinctly  secondary. 

It  has  become  a  very  general  practice  in  con- 
struction work  to  provide  for  the  application  of 
such  a  dampproofing  on  the  interior  of  all  ex- 
posed walls,  as  it  gives  an  element  in  the  wall 
that  will  prevent  the  continuous  penetration  of 
dampness  or  moisture  through  the  wall,  which 
would  injure  and  destroy  the  interior  decora- 
tions and  produce  a  damp  and  unhealthful 
condition. 

The  subject  of  waterproofing  proper,  as  we 
have  defined  applying  to  the  treatment  of  sub- 
terra  construction  and  structures  intended  for 
retaining  and  containing  water  under  hydro- 
static head,  may  very  correctly  be  divided  into 
the  two  characteristic  methods,  viz.:  Integral 
and  Membrane,  each  of  which  has  further  sub- 
divisions. 

The  Integral  Method  of  waterproofing  in- 
volves the  addition  of  compounds  to  the  con- 
crete at  the  time  it  is  placed,  and  becomes  a 
unit  or  integral  part  of  the  mass.  This  method 
is  also  known  as  the  Rigid  Method  of  treatment 
in  distinction  to  the  Membrane,  which  permits 


greater  movement  and  conformation  in  the 
structure  without  injuring  the  effectiveness  of 
the  waterproofing  treatment. 

The  Integral  Method  has  been  received  with 
a  great  deal  of  favor  by  engineers,  and  its  appli- 
cation has  been  increasing  quite  rapidly.  Un- 
doubtedly the  more  general  selection  and  speci- 
fication of  the  Integral  Method  in  preference  to 
the  Membrane,  in  general  substructural  con- 
crete work,  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  develop- 
ment in  the  design  of  reinforced  concrete  has 
served  to  enable  the  engineer  to  anticipate  his 
tensile  stresses  and  strain  and  provide  against 
the  rupture  or  cracking  in  the  concrete  by  in- 
troduction of  the  proper  area  of  steel.  For  all 
concrete  construction  work  where  proper  rein- 
forcing or  provisions  are  made  against  cracking, 
the  Integral  Method  is  by  far  the  most  satisfac- 
tory, due  to  its  greater  general  economy. 
Various  compounds  which  are  used  for  general 
integral  waterproofing  requirements  may  be 
divided  into  two  classes  characterized  by  the 
physical  condition  in  which  they  are  added  to 
the  concrete,  viz.: 

(1)  Finely  powdered  dry  compounds 
which  are  mixed  with  the  dry 
cement. 

A — Integral  \  (2)  Compounds  either  in  liquid  or  paste 
form  which  are  added  directly  to 
the  water  used  to  temper  the  dry 
mixture  of  cement  and  aggregate. 

The  products  coming  under  the  first  classi- 
fication may  be  further  divided,  due  to  their 
characteristic  physical  properties,  into  three 
classes,  viz.: 

I  (a)  Repellent. 

(1) — Finely  Powdered  Compounds    <j    (b)  Non-repellent. 
Mixed  with  Dry  Cement.        [  (c)  Metallic. 

(a)  The  repellents  were  the  first  integral 
waterproofing  compounds  to  be  generally  used. 
These  materials  are  usually  the  metallic  salts  of 
various  fatty  acids  that  impart  their  charac- 
teristic repellent  properties.  The  larger  pro- 
portion of  the  repellent  compounds  are  the 
lime  salt  of  a  fatty  acid,  combined  with  a 
greater  or  lesser  content  of  hydrated  lime. 
Such  lime  soaps  were  undoubtedly  originally 
chosen  as  waterproofing  compounds  due  to 
their  characteristic  water-repellent  properties. 
The  repellent  feature  of  such  a  compound  is  an 
excellent  property  to  possess  when  the  material 
is  uniformly  and  homogeneously  distributed  in 
the  mass  of  the  concrete,  but  its  repellent  na- 
ture makes  even  distribution  quite  difficult. 

In  the  practical  application  of  these  dry  re- 
pellent powders,  the  material  is  mixed  in  pro- 
portions varying  from  1  to  5  per  cent  with  the 
dry  cement.  The  treated  cement  is  then  com- 
bined with  the  aggregate  and  tempered  with 
water  to  proper  consistency.  It  develops  in 
practical  operations  that  regardless  of  the  care 


that  may  be  exercised  in  the  careful  and  thor- 
ough dry  mixing  of  the  repellent  powders  with 
the  dry  cement,  there  is  the  characteristic 
tendency  to  be  expelled  from  the  careful  mix- 
ture when  water  has  been  added.  This,  of 
course,  is  particularly  true  when  the  concrete 
is  mixed  quite  wet  and  there  is  greater  oppor- 
tunity for  flow  throughout  the  mass  of  con- 
crete. In  dry  mixtures,  such  as  are  quite  gener- 
ally used  in  facing  concrete  blocks  and  artificial 
stone,  the  dry  repellent  powders  can  be  used 
quite  successfully,  as  the  distribution  can  be 
maintained  by  holding  the  compound  en- 
trapped and  imprisoned  throughout  the  mass, 
with  no  opportunity  to  manifest  its  repellent 
properties,  due  to  the  dryness  of  the  mixture. 
For  general  concrete  operations,  however,  the 
repellent  properties  are  greatly  limited,  due  to 
their  repellent  action.  The  presence  of  quite  a 
large  percentage  of  hydrated  lime  is  essential 
to  serve  as  a  ballast  for  the  repellent  material. 

(b)  The  objection  which  has  been  taken  by 
the  engineering  fraternity  to  the  use  of  repel- 
lent products  on  account  of  the  uncertainty  in 
uniform  results,   has  been   a  natural   incentive 
to  develop  products  which  do  not  show  this  re- 
pellent   action.      These    products    are    usually 
constituted  on  a  basis  of  hydrated  clay,  alumi- 
num hydroxide  or  some  similar  inorganic  col- 
loidal   substance.       In    manufacture    they    are 
ground  extremely  fine  so  as  to  develop  the  larg- 
est possible  surface  area  to    intensify    colloidal 
development.      The    partial    efficiency    of   such 
materials    is    contributed    by    their    void-filling 
value.      They  are  also  recommended   as  bene- 
ficial   in    lubricating    the    mass   of   concrete    so 
that  it  flows  together  in   a  tighter  and  closer 
mass. 

The  limitation  of  such  materials  is  due 
primarily  to  the  fact  that  the  products  which 
are  used,  while  of  a  characteristic  colloidal 
nature,  have  not  the  capacity  for  sufficient  col- 
loidal development  to  fill  out  all  the  voids  and 
apertures  of  a  concrete  mass  and  give  a  density 
that  is  absolutely  impermeable.  There  is  also 
considerable  doubt  in  regard  to  the  perma- 
nency of  the  colloids,  due  to  the  fact  that  when 
given  opportunity  of  drying  out  there  is  some 
difficulty  and  delay  experienced  in  their  revert- 
ing back  to  their  original  colloidal  volume. 

(c)  To  complete  the  classification  of  various 
integral   waterproofings  which  are   mixed  with 
the  dry  cement,  metallic  compounds  should  be 
mentioned.      These   products   consist   primarily 
of  very  finely  ground  metallic  iron,  and  in  their 
integral    application    are    mixed    dry    with    the 
cement    in    a    similar    procedure    to    other    dry 
integral  products. 

The  theory  of  the  action  of  such  products  is 
the  increase  in  volume  that  occurs  from  the 


oxidation  of  the  iron.  When  the  process  is  com- 
plete, in  place  of  the  fine  particles  of  iron,  there 
is  developed  the  hydrated  oxide,  which  occupies 
a  volume  much  larger  than  is  the  case  with  the 
original  iron  particle.  The  great  difficulty, 
however,  in  obtaining  satisfactory  results  with 
the  metallic  powders  when  used  in  integral 
application  is  the  fact  that  cement  itself  is 
strongly  basic  and  the  presence  of  the  hydroxyl 
ions  developed  in  the  crystallization  of  the 
cement  naturally  inhibits  corrosion  and  pre- 
vents the  oxidation  and  development  of  the  iron 
throughout  the  mass  of  concrete,  which  is 
essential  for  efficient  results. 

The  second  class  of  integral  waterproofing 
compounds  which  are  added  directly  to  the 
water,  either  in  liquid  or  paste  form,  has  the 
great  advantage  of  absolute  certainty  in  even, 
uniform  distribution  throughout  the  concrete. 
These  products  are  generally  readily  miscible 
with  water,  forming  a  colloidal  suspension  in 
the  water,  and  as  a  result  of  thorough  mixing 
of  the  water  with  the  cementing  materials,  are 
correspondingly  uniformly  distributed  through- 
out the  entire  mass.  The  compounds  in  this 
class  may  for  the  most  complete  consideration 
be  divided  into  the  three  following  classes: 


(2) — Compounds  in  liquid 
or  paste  form  added 
directly  to  water 
used  to  temper  con- 
crete. 


(a)  Unsaturated  Colloids 

(b)  Extended  Colloids 

(c)  Concentrated  Colloids 


(a)  Under  this  class  are  included  practically 
all  compounds  which  contain  unsaturated  fatty 
acids  that  require  reaction  with  the  constituents 
of  the  cement  in  order  to  form  the  final  water- 
proofing compound.    These  products  are  usually 
mixed  with  the  water  used  to  temper  the  con- 
crete in  proportions  varying  from  1:25  to  1:50. 

The  great  general  objection  to  the  use  of  un- 
saturated colloids  is  the  uncertainty  of  the 
effect  upon  the  tensile  and  compressive  strength 
of  the  concrete.  The  one  constituent  in  the 
cement  that  is  most  reactive  with  the  fatty 
acids  in  these  unsaturated  compounds  is  the 
calcium  hydroxide,  which  also  plays  a  very 
important  part  in  the  normal  setting  and  hard- 
ening of  the  cement.  The  utilization  of  a 
portion  of  the  calcium  hydroxide  for  reaction 
with  the  unsaturated  compound  to  form  a 
waterproofing  colloid  will  proportionately  de- 
tract from  the  strength  which  the  calcium 
hydroxide  is  intended  to  contribute  in  the 
normal  hardening  of  the  cement. 

(b)  Products   included   under   the   classifi- 
cation   of   extended    colloids    are    not    usually 
characterized   by   any   tendency   to   enter   into 
reaction  with  the  constituents  of  the  cement, 
but  contribute  their  efficiency  by  the  charac- 
teristic    colloidal     nature    of    the     compounds 
themselves.      The    limitation    of   the    extended 


colloids  is  in  the  fact  that  in  the  process  em- 
ployed in  the  manufacture  of  the  products, 
there  is  invariably  associated  with  the  ex- 
tended colloidal  compound  more  or  less  inert 
material  which  is  not  particularly  beneficial  in 
contributing  waterproofing  value.  The  presence 
of  varying  percentages  of  inert  and  inactive 
materials  associated  with  the  colloidal  com- 
pounds naturally  makes  these  compounds  un- 
economical, as  they  must  necessarily  be  used 
in  quite  rich  proportion  in  order  to  carry  in 
sufficient  of  the  colloidal  substance  to  give 
satisfactory  waterproofing  results. 

(c)  The  products  included  in  this  class  are 
a  further  development  of  the  extended  colloids 
in  that  they  contain  only  materials  of  a  strictly 
colloidal  nature,  which  are  capable  of  contrib- 
uting waterproofing  value.  In  their  manufac- 
ture the  inert  and  inactive  materials  have  been 
eliminated,  so  that  the  final  product  contains 
only  colloidal  substances  and  so  combined  as  to 
develop  the  maximum  colloidal  value.  The 
fact  that  such  products  are  concentrated  affords 
the  maximum  economy,  as  they  can  be  used  in 
leaner  proportions  and  still  provide  the  col- 
loidal volume  that  is  essential  to  fill  out  all  the 
pores  and  apertures  in  the  concrete  and  give  the 
density  necessary  for  impermeability. 

B — The  second  general  division  of  the  literal 
subject  of  waterproofing  differs  distinctly  from 
the  integral  method  in  that  it  does  not  attempt 
to  treat  the  concrete,  but  rather  to  insulate  it 
from  contact  with  water  by  enveloping  the 
structure  in  a  continuous  bituminous  shield. 
The  fact  that  the  membrane  is  not  a  rigid  or 
unit  part  of  the  structure  permits  a  certain 
freedom  of  movement  and  action  in  the  con- 
crete without  impairing  the  efficiency  of  the 
waterproofing  treatment.  This  feature  of  the 
membrane  system  makes  it  suitable  for  water- 
proofing work  not  fully  reinforced  and  liable  to 
settlement  or  subject  to  vibration  or  shock, 
such  as  a  railroad  bridge. 

It  was  early  practice  to  simply  coat  the 
surface  to  be  waterproofed  with  hot  tar  or 
asphalt,  but  it  soon  became  evident  that  this 
was  not  sufficient,  as  the  coating  would  crack 
with  any  movement  in  the  wall.  It  was,  there- 
fore, necessary  to  employ  some  material  in 
addition  to  the  bitumen  in  order  to  contribute 
the  necessary  toughness  and  tensile  strength. 
Burlap  and  coal  tar  felt  have  been  extensively 
used  for  this  purpose  and  some  very  satisfactory 
waterproofing  operations  have  been  carried 
out  with  such  materials.  During  the  last  few 
years  considerably  more  attention  has  been 
given  to  the  nature  of  the  waterproofing  felt, 
and  as  a  result  there  are  now  on  the  market 
especially  manufactured  felts  which  are  both 
saturated  and  coated  with  bitumen  and  possess 
greater  pliability  and  strength.  By  means  of 


these  felts  more  perfect  membranes  can  be 
constructed,  as  the  strength  and  toughness  of 
the  felt  permit  greater  distortion  and  twisting 
to  accommodate  it  to  the  design  of  the  work. 

The  bitumens  most  generally  used  for  ce- 
menting the  felt  together  in  constructing  the 
membrane  are  coal  tar  pitch,  commercial 
asphalt  and  special  asphaltic  compositions. 
While  the  general  method  in  the  application  of 
the  reinforcing  felt  and  fabric  with  the  bitu- 
mens is  practically  the  same  with  all  of  the 
materials,  there  is  considerable  discussion  in 
the  engineering  fraternity  at  the  present  time 
regarding  the  bitumens  that  are  the  most  satis- 
factory. The  discussions  primarily  concern 
the  treatment  of  overhead  railroad  bridges  to 
protect  the  public  from  dripping  and  also  to 
protect  the  steel  from  corrosion.  At  the  pres- 
ent time  there  is  quite  an  apparent  diversity  of 
opinion  among  railroad  engineers  as  regards 
the  selection  of  the  bitumen  that  is  best  suited 
for  this  treatment.  The  present  consensus  of 
opinion  seems  to  favor  the  use  of  asphalts  when 


exposed  to  the  air,  as  they  are  more  resistive  to 
oxidation  than  is  the  case  with  coal  tar  prod- 
ucts. The  coal  tar  products  are  given  prefer- 
ence in  their  application  to  subterra  construc- 
tion, where  they  are  covered  with  earth  filling 
and  not  exposed  to  free  oxidation.  In  selecting 
any  bitumen  for  waterproofing  purposes,  care 
should  be  taken  to  obtain  a  material  at  as  low 
a  melting  point  as  the  nature  of  the  work  will 
permit,  as  it  not  only  insures  greater  elasticity 
when  subject  to  cold  temperture,  but  works 
much  more  freely  and  easily  in  applying. 

The  special  asphalts  which  are  used  quite 
generally  for  membrane  waterproofing  are 
usually  manufactured  from  a  hard  hydrocar- 
bon, such  as  gilsonite,  tempered  with  a  petro- 
leum residuum  to  impart  the  necessary  elasticity. 
The  residuums  used  in  the  preparation  of  these 
asphalts  should  be  preferably  strictly  asphalt 
bases  and  contain  the  minimum  percentage  of 
paraffin  which,  being  of  a  lubricating  nature, 
impairs  the  necessary  bonding  properties  of  the 
asphalt. 


The  Grand  Central  Terminal,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
Service  Room  floors  waterproofed  with  Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated. 


CHAPTER  TWO 


Analytical  Reasons  for   the   Necessity  of 
Incorporating  a  Waterproofing  Compound 

in  Concrete 

Importance  of  density  in  structural  materials  for  Strength  and  Resistance — Danger  of  Porosity 

Causes  of  Porosity — Examples— Porosity   of  Concrete — Why  Concrete  is  Porous — Function  of 
Integral  Waterproofing  in  eliminating  Porosity — Importance  of  Repellancy  in   Integral  Water- 
proofing Compounds — Importance  of  Colloidal  Properties  in  Integral  Waterproofings. 


In  determining  the  strength  and  resistance 
of  structural  materials,  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant properties  to  consider  is  density. 
With  density  are  associated  solidity,  strength 
and  endurance.  Contrasted  with  density,  con- 
sidered as  the  proportion  of  mass  or  quantity 
of  matter  to  volume,  porosity  would  represent 
the  actual  unoccupied  space  in  the  total  volume. 
With  porosity  are  associated  weakness,  deficiency 
and  decay. 

The  metallic  structural  materials,  such  as 
iron  and  steel,  have  the  highest  densities.  In  the 
processes  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  steel, 
the  conditions  are  all  favorable  for  producing 
a  product  of  high  density.  Also,  in  the  subse- 
quent rolling  and  shaping  of  the  metal  the 
treatment  is  one  tending  in  the  direction  of 
greater  density  and  greater  compactness.  In 
the  process  of  cooling  after  the  metal  has  been 
poured  in  the  forms,  also  in  the  treatment  which 
the  metal  receives  in  the  process  of  rolling  and 
shaping,  there  is  no  substantial  evaporation  or 
volatilization  of  any  constituent  or  inherent  part 
of  the  metal.  In  the  absence  of  elimination  of 
any  constituent  part  after  the  metal  has  taken 
definite  shape  or  definite  volume,  there  is  no 
opportunity  for  developing  unoccupied  space  or 
volume  so  as  to  impart  porous  characteristics 
to  the  metal.  The  constituents  and  elements 
of  the  metal  are  fixative  and  there  is  no  char- 
acteristic elimination  of  any  substance  by  any 
processes  that  would  develop  porosity. 

It  is  also  characteristic  of  various  rocks  that 
are  employed  extensively  in  construction  work 
to  possess  a  high  ratio  in  the  proportion  of  actual 
mass  or  quantity  of  matter  to  bulk  or  volume. 
This  high  density  is  due  to  the  fact  that  in  the 
mineralogical  formation  of  the  rock  the  processes 
were  such  as  tended  to  fill  out  with  mass  all 
available  volume  and  not  leave  any  unoccupied 
space  in  the  final  formation. 


In  structural  materials  as  well  as  the  ma- 
jority of  other  substances  which  are  character- 
ized by  low  density,  the  porosity  is  generally 
formed  by  the  elimination,  either  by  volatiliza- 
tion or  evaporation,  of  some  original  constituent 
of  the  particular  substance. 

Charcoal  is  a  characteristic  porous  substance. 
Charcoal,  as  is  general  knowledge,  is  prepared  by 
the  dry  distillation  of  wood.  Wood  in  the 
original  form  consists  of  cellulose,  resins,  lignine, 
and  various  inorganic  salts  and  water.  After 
dry  distillation  at  a  temperature  of  400  to  450 
degrees  Centigrade,  which  is  the  characteristic 
temperature  in  the  preparation  of  charcoal,  all 
of  the  volatile  matter  is  driven  off  and  the 
residual  charcoal  consists  of  practically  the 
fixed  carbon  and  the  inorganic  constituents  of 
the  wood,  representing  only  about  three-fourths 
of  the  volume  and  usually  about  twenty  per 
cent  of  the  weight  of  the  original  wood. 

Similarly,  our  common  coke  is  manufactured 
by  the  destructive  distillation  of  coal.  The 
actual  porosity  of  the  coke  will  naturally  depend 
upon  the  nature  of  the  coal  from  which  the  coke 
is  produced.  With  anthracite  coal  the  volatile 
hydrocarbons  are  low,  while  with  bituminous 
coals  the  volatile  hydrocarbons  are  high,  and 
the  actual  porosity  or  unoccupied  volume  in 
the  coke  will  be  in  direct  proportion  to  the  per- 
centage of  volatile  hydrocarbons  which  is  elim- 
inated in  the  distillation  of  the  coal. 

Quick  lime  serves  as  an  excellent  example  of 
a  substance  of  low  density,  due  to  the  high 
porosity  resulting  from  the  elimination  of  the 
carbon  dioxide  from  the  limestone  burned  to 
produce  the  quick  lime.  As  a  result  of  the  loss 
of  water,  organic  matter  and  carbon  dioxide 
during  the  burning  of  limestone,  there  is  a  great 
reduction  in  the  weight  of  the  original  material, 
but  only  a  slight  decrease  in  its  volume.  As  a 
general  case,  100  pounds  of  good  limestone  yield 


about  58  pounds  of  lime,  but  the  shrinkage  in 
bulk  is  not  over  10  to  15  per  cent  of  the  original 
volume  of  the  limestone.  The  small  reduction 
in  volume  during  burning,  compared  with  the 
big  loss  in  actual  weight,  indicates  the  develop- 
ment of  a  very  porous  structure  in  the  quick 
lime  in  direct  proportion  to  the  volume  left 
unoccupied  by  the  elimination  of  the  constituents 
driven  off  in  heating. 

The  porosity  of  our  common  burnt  brick  is 
largely  in  proportion  to  the  water,  inorganic 
matter  and  gasses  which  result  from  the  decom- 
position of  the  carbonates  and  similar  minerals 
present  in  the  clay.  While  the  brick  after  being 
pressed  is  quite  compact  and  dense,  after  being 
burned  the  structure  is  quite  porous,  due  to 
elimination  of  the  above  substances. 

It  is  to  be  emphasized  in  citing  the  above 
examples  that  in  a  large  number  of  cases  the 
actual  porosity  of  a  substance  is  in  direct  pro- 
portion to  the  original  constituents  which  are 
eliminated  by  natural  evaporation  or  in  gase- 
ous form  under  the  action  of  heat.  With  steel 
there  is  no  constituent  for  substantial  evapora- 
tion after  the  material  has  reached  the  molten 
state,  and  every  treatment  is  one  to  produce 
compactness  and  density,  while  with  charcoal, 
coke,  lime,  brick,  etc.,  the  treatment  in  manu- 
facture involves  the  evaporation  and  elimination 
of  a  large  percentage  of  the  original  constituency, 
leaving  an  unoccupied  volume  or  porosity  in 
proportion  to  the  eliminated  elements. 

Porosity,  therefore,  in  connection  with  va- 
rious substances  can  be  quite  accurately  defined 
to  be  in  direct  proportion  to  the  volume  left 
unoccupied  by  the  evaporation  or  elimination 
of  an  original  incompressible  constituent. 

According  to  this  reasoning,  the  porosity 
of  concrete  would  be  substantially  in  proportion 
to  the  volume  in  the  mass  left  unoccupied  by 
the  evaporation  of  the  larger  portion  of  the 
water  which  is  an  inportant  constituent  of  the 
original  concrete.  The  function  of  the  water 
used  for  tempering  and  mixing  Portland  cement 
concrete  is  both  physical  and  chemical.  A 
comparatively  large  excess  of  the  water  is 
required  for  the  physical  function  of  providing  a 
somewhat  liquid  consistency  that  will  permit 
the  placing  of  the  concrete  in  forms  and  its 
spading  and  tamping  to  produce  the  greatest 
compactness.  Water  is  also  necessary  to  enter 
into  chemical  reaction  with  the  cement  to  pro- 
vide for  the  natural  solution  and  hydration  of 
the  cement  essential  to  form  the  necessary 
crystallization  to  bind  and  cement  together 
particles  of  inert  aggregate.  In  the  chemical 


changes  a  portion  of  the  water  actually  becomes 
a  constituent  part  of  the  final  composition  of 
the  hydrated  cement,  but  the  larger  percentage 
is  unnecessary  for  hydration  and  is  eliminated 
by  natural  evaporation,  depending  upon  the 
mass  of  the  concrete  and  the  existing  tempera- 
ture. 

In  general  concreting  practice  between  25 
and  30  gallons  of  water  are  employed  for  tem- 
pering a  cubic  yard  of  1 :2 :4  concrete  to  a  medium 
wet  consistency.  Taking  27.5  gallons  per  cubic 
yard  as  an  average,  and  the  weight  of  water  at 
8.34  pounds  per  gallon,  there  would  obviously 
be  introduced  into  each  cubic  yard  of  concrete 
approximately  229.35  pounds.  As  water  under 
normal  conditions  of  temperature  and  pressure 
weighs  62.5  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  the  229.35 
pounds  would  be  equivalent  to  3.67  cubic  feet 
of  water.  According  to  this  calculation,  approxi- 
mately 3.67  cubic  feet  of  water  are  used  for 
tempering  concrete  comprising  one  cubic  yard. 

Estimating  liberally  that  25  per  cent  of  this 
water  would  be  utilized  in  entering  into  actual 
chemical  reaction  with  the  cement  in  the  pro- 
cesses of  hydration,  there  still  would  remain 
2.75  cubic  feet  of  free  water.  Also  making  a 
further  liberal  allowance  that  25  per  cent  of 
the  3.67  cubic  feet  of  water  is  retained  in  the 
colloidal  development  of  the  cement,  there  still 
remains  an  absolute  minimum  of  1.84  cubic  feet 
of  water  to  be  eliminated  by  evaporation.  This 
is  a  little  less  than  seven  per  cent  of  the  total 
volume,  which  would  be  left  unoccupied  by  the 
evaporation  of  the  water.  This  factor  agrees 
quite  favorably  with  observations  that  have 
been  made  to  determine  the  actual  absorption  of 
a  thoroughly  dry  concrete. 

It  is  the  function  of  an  integral  waterproofing 
compound  to  occupy  the  volume  left  free  and 
unoccupied  by  the  evaporation  of  the  water. 
The  integral  waterproofing  compound  should 
correctly  exhibit  some  repellent  action  after  it 
has  been  uniformly  distributed  throughout  the 
concrete.  The  development  of  this  repellent 
property  is  an  advantage  in  preventing  the 
absorption  of  water  into  the  capillary  struc- 
ture of  the  mass. 

More  important  is  the  necessity  of  the  integ- 
ral waterproofing  compound  possessing  col- 
loidal properties  or  capacity  of  retaining  a  larger 
percentage  of  the  water  to  provide  for  full  col- 
loidal development  of  the  integral  waterproofing 
compound,  in  order  that  through  its  voluminous 
development  all  the  pores  that  would  otherwise 
be  left  free  and  open  may  be  occupied  and  full 
density  provided. 


CHAPTER  THREE 


The  Physical  Characteristics  of  Integral 
Waterproofing  Compounds 

Waterproofing  Powders  and  Pastes — Methods  of  Introducing  Waterproofing  Powders  into  Con- 
crete— Theory  underlying  Waterproofing  Powders — Behavior  of  Powders  in  practical  use — Var- 
ious types  of  Powders— Methods  of  Introducing  Waterproofing  Pastes  into  Concrete — Behavior 
of  Pastes  in  practical  application — The  Simplicity  of  Pastes — Illustrations. 

With  the  rapid  increase  in  the  popularity  of 
the  integral  method  of  waterproofing,  there  has 
occurred  an  interesting  evolution  in  the  nature 
and  characteristics  of  the  integral  waterproofing 
compounds. 

In  the  integral  method  the  waterproofing 
compound  is  introduced  directly  into  the  mass 
of  the  concrete,  and  the  thoroughness  with 
which  it  is  distributed  throughout  the  mass 
depends  very  largely  upon  the  physical  charac- 
teristics of  the  compound. 

The  method  by  which  the  integral  water- 
proofing compound  is  introduced  into  the  con- 
crete mass  serves  as  a  very  simple,  general  means 
of  classification  of  the  various  integral  products. 
This  classification  would  include  the  two  general 
heads  of  finely  powdered  dry  compounds  which 
are  mixed  directly  with  the  dry  cement,  and  a 
second  class  of  compounds  which,  in  either  liquid 
or  paste  form,  are  added  directly  to  the  water 
used  to  temper  the  concrete. 

The  compounds  furnished  in  finely  ground 
powder,  which  must  be  mixed  evenly  and  uni- 
formly with  the  dry  cement,  represent  the 

Figure  2. 

earlier  conception  of  the  requirements  of  an 
integral  waterproofing  compound.  In  the  prac- 
tical use  of  these  compounds,  from  two  to  five 
pounds  of  the  material  are  recommended  to  be 
mixed  dry  with  each  bag  of  cement.  To  insure 
effective  mechanical  distribution,  it  is  necessary 
that  the  required  amount  of  material  is  thor- 
oughly dry-mixed  with  the  cement.  This  opera- 
tion generally  involves  considerable  labor  and 
has  proved  one  of  the  serious  handicaps  which 
has  retarded  the  more  extended  use  of  the  dry 
compounds. 

The  compounds  included  under  the  general 
class  of  dry  powders  which  in  application  must 
be  mechanically  mixed  with  the  dry  cement 
can,  for  the  most  comprehensive  consideration 
of  their  physical  properties,  be  divided  into 
repellents,  non-repellents  and  metallics.  All  of 
the  various  dry  powder  compounds,  considered 
from  the  standpoint  of  their  physical  character- 
istics, are  included  under  one  of  the  above-men- 
tioned classes. 

The  compounds  which  are  characterized  by 
a  repellent  action  to  water  were  among  the  first 
Figure  i.  of  the  dry  powders  that  were  generally  used. 


The  repellent  properties  of  these  compounds  are 
contributed  entirely  by  the  presence  of  metallic 
soaps  which  have  the  inherent  characteristic  of 
being  immiscible  with  water.  It  was  only  quite 
natural  that  these  dry  repellent  soaps  would  be 
among  the  earlier  conceptions  of  the  integral 
waterproofing,  as  the  interesting  property  of 
being  immiscible  with  water  would  readily  sug- 
gest that  they  possessed  advantages  in  repelling 


Figure  3. 

water  from  entrance  into  the  concrete,  if  they 
could  be  introduced  in  a  uniform  distribution 
throughout  the  concrete  mass. 

While  theoretically  this  conception  seems 
excellent,  yet  in  practical  operations  it  has  been 
repeatedly  demonstrated  that  the  repellent 
nature  of  the  compounds  is  exactly  the  character- 
istic that  prohibits  even  and  uniform  results. 
Regardless  of  the  care  that  may  be  exercised  to 
insure  the  most  even  and  uniform  mechanical 
mixing  of  the  repellent  compound  with  the  dry 
cement,  when  the  cement  is  tempered  with  water 
the  compound  has  the  marked  tendency  to 
separate  out,  due  to  its  immiscibility  with  the 
water. 

Figure  No.  1  shows  an  interesting  experiment 
to  demonstrate  the  marked  repellent  nature  of 
these  compounds  containing  metallic  soaps. 
To  a  beaker  about  two-thirds  full  of  distilled 
water  was  added  a  weighed  amount  of  a  repre- 
sentative repellent  compound.  The  mixture 
was  subjected  to  very  vigorous  mechanical  agita- 
tion for  several  hours,  and  at  the  conclusion 
practically  all  of  the  repellent  compound  was 
still  retained  on  the  top  of  the  water,  showing  no 
tendency  for  mechanical  mixing  with  the  water. 
It  is  exactly  this  repellent  feature,  which  in 
earlier  conception  seemed  a  valuable  character- 
istic, that  has  proven  a  serious  objection  to  the 
use  of  such  compounds. 

An     interesting     analogy    emphasizing     the 


physical  behavior  of  the  repellent  compounds 
would  be  the  result  of  an  effort  to  keep  finely 
ground  cork  distributed  throughout  the  mass 
of  the  powder  with  which  it  was  originally  mixed 
dry,  when  water  was  added  to  the  powder  so  as 
to  produce  a  thin  paste.  Very  naturally  the  cork, 
due  to  its  lighter  gravity  and  its  repellent  action, 
would  separate  itself  from  any  uniform  mechani- 
cal distribution  that  might  have  originally  been 
provided,  and  tend  to  collect  on  top  of  the  water. 

Quite  naturally  the  extent  to  which  the  dry 
compound  or  repellent  product  will  be  ejected  or 
expelled  from  its  mixture  with  the  cement  will 
depend  upon  the  consistency  to  which  the  con- 
crete mass  has  been  tempered  with  water.  With 
very  dry  mixtures  the  compound  will  be  held 
mechanically  entrapped,  but  in  mixtures  that  are 
sufficiently  wet  to  be  consistent  with  those  gen- 
erally used  in  practical  concreting,  there  is  enough 
opportunity  for  movement  in  the  mass  so  that 
the  even  distribution  of  the  repellent  compound 
will  be  destroyed  by  its  natural  tendency  to 
stratify  and  segregate  throughout  the  mass. 

The  second  class  of  dry  compounds  that  are 
added  directly  to  the  cement  is  a  very  natural 
evolution  developing  from  the  observed  behav- 
ior of  and  the  objections  to  the  repellent  com- 
pounds. With  these  non-repellents  there  is 
naturally  no  difficulty  experienced  in  maintain- 
ing uniform  distribution  in  the  cement,  as  they 
are  as  thoroughly  miscible  with  water  as  the 
cement  itself. 

One  of  the  interesting  features  that  is  claimed 
for  these  dry  compounds  is  that  due  to  their 
colloidal  nature  they  serve  as  lubricants  and  pro- 
vide greater  density  due  to  the  greater  com- 
pactness of  the  concrete.  This  lubricating 
characteristic,  intended  to  bring  the  particles 
of  aggregate  and  mortar  in  closer  contact,  is 
doubtless  one  of  some  consideration,  but  this 
simple  property  of  an  integral  product  is  not 
the  prime  function  in  determining  the  effective- 
ness with  which  the  concrete  is  rendered  water- 
proof. An  integral  waterproofing  to  be  effective 
must  serve  to  accomplish  a  great  deal  more  than 
simply  providing  a  little  freer  consistency  in  the 
concrete  that  will  insure  its  flowing  together  to  a 
little  tighter  and  closer  mass. 

The  important  limitation  of  the  non-repel- 
lents is  due  primarily  to  the  fact  that  the  com- 
pounds are  not  of  such  a  nature,  nor  do  they 
lend  themselves  to  any  treatments  that  will 
insure  the  development  of  their  colloidal  prop- 
erties, which  according  to  the  latest  conception 
of  integral  waterproofing  are  essential  for  thor- 
oughly effective  results.  While  the  compounds 
may  originally  have  some  colloidal  properties, 
the  non-repellents  are  characterized  by  colloids 
which  are  termed  technically  non-reversible. 
On  the  drying  out  of  the  concrete  there  is  a 
tendency  for  the  non-repellents  to  lose  their 
colloidal  properties  in  giving  up  their  moisture. 


In  this  condition,  even  though  the  concrete  may 
again  become  wet,  the  non-repellents  are  ex- 
tremely slow  in  reverting  to  their  original  state 
and  in  some  cases  it  is  questionable  if  they  have 
any  property  of  returning  to  their  original  col- 
loidal condition,  in  order  to  develop  to  the 
necessary  volume  to  fill  out  and  occupy  all  the 
internal  voids  and  interstices,  essential  to  give 
a  density  that  will  be  impermeable. 

For  completeness  in  the  classification  of  dry 
powder  compounds  that  are  added  directly  to 
the  dry  cement,  mention  should  be  made  of  the 
metallic  products.  These  compounds  have  con- 
tributed very  little  to  successful  integral  water- 
proofing treatments,  due  primarily  to  the  fact 
that  they  are  composed  largely  of  finely  ground 
metallic  iron.  When  mixed  with  cement  and  sur- 
rounded by  an  alkaline  medium,  there  is  no 
opportunity  for  corrosion  or  development  of  the 
physical  volume  of  the  iron,  and  they  remain 
only  as  inert,  inactive,  mechanical  fillers  of 
practically  no  more  advantage  in  the  mass  than 
fine  aggregate. 

The  second  general  class  of  integral  com- 
pounds, namely  the  products  which,  either  in 
liquid  or  paste  form,  are  added  directly  to  the 
water  used  to  temper  the  concrete,  marks  the 
most  important  and  valuable  improvement  in 
the  subject  of  integral  waterproofing.  The 
objection  of  the  contractor  to  the  added  labor 
cost  and  effort  involved  in  the  dry  mixing  of 
the  powder  compounds  with  the  cement,  and 
the  intelligent  criticism  of  the  architect  and 
engineer  in  recognizing  the  impracticability  of 
keeping  such  compounds  properly  mixed  with 
the  mass,  were  fully  met  and  solved  by  the  intro- 
duction of  products  which  are  added  through 
the  medium  of  the  water. 

Figure  No.  2  illustrates  an  easily  conducted 
experiment  which  very  clearly  emphasizes  the 


Figure  4. 


practical  advantages  of  the  compounds  which 
are  added  directly  to  the  water.  In  this  experi- 
ment one  part  of  a  compound  in  paste  consis- 
tency was  added  to  twenty-four  parts  of  water, 
and  after  very  little  agitation  produced  an  even, 
uniform  mixture  of  milky  appearance.  In  this 
particular  experiment  the  compound  remained 
for  several  hours  in  suspension,  demonstrating 
that  on  addition  to  the  water  the  paste  com- 
pound formed  an  almost  perfect  colloidal  sus- 
pension in  the  water. 

It  is  obvious  that  a  paste  compound  of  this 
nature  which,  with  very  little  agitation,  be- 
comes so  thoroughly  and  uniformly  mixed 
with  the  water,  with  which  it  indefinitely  re- 
mains in  suspension,  will  through  the  medium  of 
the  water  be  carried  throughout  the  entire  mass 
of  the  concrete  and  give  a  thoroughly  uniform 
waterproofing  result. 

In  practical  work  the  operation  of  the  in- 
troduction of  the  paste  compounds  which  are 
miscible  with  water  can  be  very  simply  con- 
ducted. Figure  No.  3  illustrates  a  concreting 
plant  where  a  temporary  platform  has  been 
constructed  above  the  mixer.  This  platform 
should  be  built  strong  enough  so  as  to  support 
the  weights  of  a  barrel  of  the  waterproofing 
compound,  two  barrels  of  water,  together  with  the 
weight  of  usually  one  workman,  who  will  provide 
for  the  mixing  of  the  paste  with  the  water  in  pro- 
portions in  which  it  is  recommended  to  be  used. 

Figure  No.  4  illustrates  the  simple  method 
of  providing  for  two  empty  barrels,  each  con- 
nected by  pipe  so  as  to  deliver  its  contents 
directly  into  the  mixer.  While  the  mixture  of 
paste  and  water  in  one  barrel  is  being  used  for 
tempering  the  concrete  in  the  mixer  below,  a 
new  mixture  of  paste  and  water  can  be  pre- 
pared in  the  second  barrel,  and  by  this  alternat- 
ing process  one  barrel  will  always  be  in  readiness 
for  use  and  there  will  be  no  opportunity  for 
retarding  or  in  any  way  delaying  the  concreting 
operation. 

While  the  illustration  shows  two  workmen  on  the  plat- 
form mixing  the  paste  compound  with  the  water,  it  is 
generally  accomplished  by  one  man,  as  the  paste  com- 
pound, to  be  a  thoroughly  effective  and  practical  one 
must  mix  with  the  water  easily,  so  that  the  whole  oper- 
ation involves  only  placing  a  measured  quantity  of  the 
waterproofing  in  the  barrel  and  then  filling  the  latter  with 
water  from  a  pipe  connection  that  is  provided  on  the 
platform. 

This  method  of  introduction  of  the  waterproofing 
compound  naturally  appeals  to  the  contractor,  as  it  is 
one  that  requires  very  little  additional  labor  cost,  since 
the  manipulation  is  so  easy  and  simple.  It  in  no  way  in- 
terferes with  the  rate  or  speed  of  mixing  the  concrete, 
as  the  workman  on  the  platform  will  always  have  the 
mixture  of  paste  and  water  in  proper  proportion  ready, 
and  by  being  elevated  above  the  mixer  is  not  in  the  way 
so  as  to  interfere  with  or  complicate  the  conveying  or 
depositing  of  the  concreting  materials  in  the  mixer. 

The  efficiency  of  the  various  integral  waterproofings 
which  are  added  either  in  liquid  or  paste  form  directly  to 
the  water  is  naturally  governed  by  their  chemical  com- 
position. This  is  disscussed  in  the  following  chapter. 


CHAPTER  FOUR 


The  Colloidal  Behavior  of  Integral 
Waterproofing  Compounds 


Significance  of  Colloidal  Characteristics  as  applied  to  Integral  Waterproofings — Difference  be- 
tween Portland  Cement  and  Plaster  of  Paris — Presence  of  Colloids  in  Portland  Cement — Semi- 
Waterproofness  of  Portland  Cement  Mortar  due  to  presence  of  Colloids — Addition  of  sufficient 
more  Colloid  to  produce  complete  Waterproofness — Types  of  Colloidal  Material  which  will  pro- 
duce most  complete  and  permanent  Waterproofing  results — Manner  in  which  they  should  be 

introduced  into  the  Concrete. 


The  significance  of  colloidal  characteristics 
as  applied  to  integral  waterproofings  has  devel- 
oped with  the  increased  knowledge  on  the 
technology  of  Portland  cement.  Prominent 
among  the  students  of  the  technology  of  Port- 
land cement  is  Doctor  W.  Michaelis,  Sr.,  who 
through  his  masterful  work  has  given  science  a 
great  deal  of  additional  valuable  information 
on  the  true  constitution  of  and  the  processes 
which  occur  in  the  hardening  of  hydraulic 
cements. 

Doctor  Michaelis  has  very  convincingly 
shown  in  his  investigations  that  in  the  processes 
that  characterize  the  hardening  of  Portland 
cement,  there  is,  in  addition  to  the  crystallizing 
processes  which  have  been  brought  out  by  earlier 
investigators,  a  characteristic  colloidal  action 
which  actually  serves  a  very  important  function 
in  the  hardening  and  contributes  very  important 
properties  to  the  hardened  body. 

Portland  cement  considered  as  a  product 
hardening  by  crystallizing  action  alone,  its 
general  characteristics  would  be  quite  similar 
to  those  of  plaster  of  Paris,  which  is  also  a 
hydraulic  material.  It  is  common  knowledge, 
however,  that  any  composition  of  which  plaster 
of  Paris  is  the  sole  cementing  agency  does  not 
possess  the  property  of  resistance  to  continued 
weather  exposure.  The  most  important  reason 
to  explain  the  characteristic  weather-  and  time- 
resisting  qualities  of  Portland  cement  mortar  or 
concrete  as  compared  to  a  plaster  of  Paris  mix- 
ture is  the  presence  of  the  colloidal  substance 
that  is  formed  in  the  process  of  hardening  of 
Portland  cement,  in  addition  to  the  crystallizing 
action,  and  which  is  not  a  characteristic  of 
plaster  of  Paris. 

Chemically,  the  colloidal  body  that  occurs  in 
the  hardening  of  Portland  cement  results  from 
reaction  between  the  silica  and  lime  forming  a 
calcium  silicate.  The  fact  that  the  product  is 
formed  in  the  presence  of  an  excessive  amount 
of  water,  provides  for  more  or  less  water  entering 
into  the  composition  of  the  compound,  which, 


due  to  the  rather  energetic  and  rapid  reaction, 
forms  a  highly  developed  colloidal  body,  giving 
in  its  accurate  technical  nomenclature  a  col- 
loidal calcium  hydrosilicate.  For  simplicity, 
Doctor  Michaelis  refers  to  this  colloidal  body 
as  a  hydrogel,  and  the  greater  number  of  its 
more  general  characteristics  can  be  better 
visualized  by  conceiving  this  compound  as  a 
glue  or  jell. 

As  stated  above,  a  great  many  of  the  puzzling 
behaviors  of  Portland  cement  when  applied  in 
construction  work  as  a  mortar  or  concrete  are 
quite  clearly  and  fully  explained  by  under- 
standing the  characteristic  behavior  of  this 
hydrogel.  Various  observations  in  the  crack- 
ing of  mortar  and  concrete  which  have  been 
quite  difficult  to  explain  by  thermal  action  or 
other  natural  causes,  are  quite  clearly  under- 
stood by  applying  the  knowledge  of  the  char- 
acteristic expansion  and  contraction  of  this 
hydrogel.  The  unusual  development  of  cracks 
in  Portland  cement  concrete  or  mortar  is  quite 
generally  the  result  of  rapid  shrinkage  or  con- 
traction of  this  colloidal  substance.  Also, 
cracks  developing  from  an  internal  expansion 
are  quite  generally  due  to  the  development  of 
the  colloidal  substance,  usually  in  contact  with 
water.  In  fact,  the  activity  of  this  colloidal 
substance  is  quite  directly  a  function  of  the 
presence  or  the  absence  of  water.  The  volume 
changes  in  Portland  cement  concrete  as  affected 
by  the  presence  of  water  acting  on  this  colloidal 
substance  are  very  thoroughly  and  splendidly 
discussed,  together  with  data  on  accurately  con- 
ducted observations,  in  an  article  presented  to 
the  1914  meeting  of  the  American  Society  for 
Testing  Materials  and  reported  in  volume  four- 
teen of  the  Proceedings  of  this  Society.  This 
article  clearly  and  convincingly  presents  the 
behavior  of  Portland  cement  in  reaction  with 
water,  expanding  and  contracting  under  various 
conditions,  influenced  by  the  characteristics  of 
the  colloid. 

A  careful  study  of  the  behavior  and  influence 
of  this  naturally  occurring  colloid  in  Portland 


cement  mortar  develops  some  very  important 
and  significant  facts  as  regards  the  correct 
properties  and  behavior  of  an  integral  water- 
proofing product  in  order  to  be  effective  and 
satisfactory  in  imparting  perfect  density  to 
Portland  cement  mortar  or  concrete.  Funda- 
mentally, an  ideal  integral  waterproofing  should 
be  of  colloidal  nature  in  order  to  serve  most 
effectively  in  filling  in  the  voids  and  interstices 
left  between  the  interlacing  and  interlocking  of 
the  crystals  formed  in  the  hardening. 

While  the  natural  gelatinous  and  glue-like 
characteristics  of  a  colloidal  substance  are  best 
suited  to  form  and  develop  around  the  crystals, 
yet  there  is  a  very  important  distinction  to  be 
emphasized  in  connection  with  the  general 
behavior  of  the  colloidal  substance  to  be  best 
suited  for  the  purpose  of  waterproofing.  The 
hydrogel  forming  in  Portland  cement  mortar  is 
quite  sensitive  to  the  action  of  water  and  in 
some  applications  of  Portland  cement  is  objec- 
tionable, due  to  the  expansion  which  occurs 
from  abnormal  development  when  brought  into 
contact,  such  as  immersion,  with  water.  The 
colloid  in  an  ideal  integral  waterproofing  should 
accordingly  be  only  slightly  sensitive  to  the 
action  of  water.  In  contact  with  water  it 
should  expand  and  develop  only  to  the  extent 
that  is  necessary  to  thoroughly  fill  all  unoccu- 
pied spaces  and  yield  a  density  that  will  render 
the  concrete  impermeable.  Any  tendency  for 
an  overdevelopment  of  the  colloid  will  result  in 
manifesting  an  internal  expansive  force  similar 
to  that  characteristic  of  the  hydrogel  itself 
which  will  develop  internal  strains  tending  to 
reduce  the  strength,  with  the  possibility  of  their 
concentration  in  definite  expansion  cracks. 

The  colloid  in  an  ideal  integral  waterproofing 
should  also  be  one  that  will  not  show  a  tendency 
to  lose  its  colloidal  development  when  the  con- 
crete might  for  any  period  not  be  in  contact  with 
water  but  allowed  to  remain  entirely  dry.  Under 
such  conditions  a  truly  colloidal  integral  water- 
proofing should  substantially  retain  its  col- 
loidal development  and  not  lose  the  water  that 


is  present  in  its  composition,  resulting  in  con- 
traction and  shrinkage  that  is  slow  in  reverting 
to  the  colloidal  state  when  again  brought  in 
contact  with  moisture.  Colloidal  materials, 
such  as  hydrated  lime,  aluminum  hydroxide 
and  clay,  all  of  which  have  been  used  more  or 
less  but  with  limited  results  in  integral  water- 
proofing, are  examples  of  substances  which  are 
very  slow  to  revert  to  their  colloidal  state  after 
having  been  thoroughly  dried  out. 

Consistent  with  the  present  knowledge  of 
the  constitution  and  behavior  of  Portland 
cement,  the  product  best  suited  to  impart 
waterproofness  to  concrete  is  the  colloidal  sub- 
stance which  is  limited  in  its  sensitiveness  to 
the  action  of  water  to  develop  just  sufficiently 
to  fill  out  the  pores  and  interstices  near  the  sur- 
face, so  as  to  thoroughly  exclude  and  prohibit 
the  entrance  of  moisture,  without  an  over- 
development that  would  manifest  internal  strains. 
Such  a  compound  obviously  serves  to  protect 
the  concrete  against  any  abnormal  change  in 
its  volume  due  to  the  internal  colloid,  by  barring 
the  absorption  or  entrance  of  the  water  into  the 
actual  interior  of  the  mass,  where  it  would  come 
in  contact  and  react  in  its  characteristic  way 
with  the  colloid  naturally  occurring  in  Port- 
land cement. 

In  integral  waterproofing  the  product  of 
correct  colloidal  properties  should  best  be  in- 
troduced through  the  medium  of  the  water,  in 
order  to  insure  the  most  even  and  uniform  dis- 
tribution. To  accomplish  this  the  product 
should  be  miscible  with  water,  forming  with 
very  little  agitation  a  colloidal  suspension  or 
solution.  However,  after  it  has  been  deposited 
with  the  greatest  homogeneity  throughout  the 
entire  mass  of  the  concrete,  in  addition  to  col- 
loidal development  it  should  be  characterized 
with  more  or  less  repellent  properties,  in  order  to 
serve  not  only  in  developing  under  the  action  of 
water  so  as  to  fill  out  any  spaces  left  unoccupied 
by  the  evaporation  of  the  water,  but  also  to 
repel  and  reject  water  with  which  it  may  come 
in  contact. 


Lincoln  Motor  Co.,  Detroit,  Mich.   George  D.  Mason,  Architect,  A.  A.  Albrecht  Co.,  Contractors,  Walbridge  Aldinger  Co.,  Contractors 

Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated,  used  in  construction  of  this  building. 


CHAPTER  FIVE 

Influence  of  Water  on  Concrete 

By  Frank  Burton,  Department  of  Buildings,  Detroit,  Mich. 

Influence  of  Wetting  and  Drying  of  Concrete  on  its  Physical  Properties — Colloidal  Nature  of 
Portland  Cement — Experiments  by  Campbell  &  White  on  Expansion  and  Contraction  of  Concrete 
due  to  alternate  Wetting  and  Drying — Similar  experiments  by  Considere — An  interesting  prac- 
tical Example — Further  observations  by  Professor  White — Curves  showing  variation  in  Tensile 
Strength  of  Concrete  on  Wetting  and  Drying — Importance  of  Subject  as  related  to  entire  Field 
of  Concrete  Construction — Theoretical  Considerations — More  Practical  Examples. 


Much  has  been  written  concerning  the  ad- 
visability and  desirability  of  waterproofing 
concrete.  In  so  far  as  the  presence  of  water 
might  prove  a  menace  to  health  or  property  or 
be  unsightly,  the  reason  for  waterproofing  is 
obvious.  In  other  cases,  however,  as  for  instance 
a  concrete  footing  for  a  wall  or  column  located 
below  the  cellar  bottom,  waterproofing  is  looked 
upon  by  many  as  superfluous.  This  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  the  effect  of  water  upon  the  physical 
properties  of  concrete  has  either  been  considered 
too  insignificant  for  consideration  or  assumed 
not  to  exist  for  the  simple  reason  that  water  is 
one  of  the  ingredients  of  concrete. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  wetting  and  drying  of 
concrete  have  a  profound  influence  upon  the 
physical  properties  of  concrete  and  expecially 
upon  its  strength.  Concrete  being  first  of  all  a 
structural  material,  it  seems  proper  that  this 
subject  should  have  received  careful  study  long 
before  this  instead  of  being  relegated  to  the 
realm  of  things  too  theoretical  to  interest  the 
"practical"  man. 

So  long  as  concrete  was  regarded  as  a  mass 
of  sand  and  stone  tied  together  by  a  network  of 
fine  interwoven  insoluble  crystals,  students  of 
the  subject  could  not  be  expected  to  anticipate 
the  effect  of  wetting  such  a  mass  since  insoluble 
crystals  are  hard  and  impervious  and  are  not 
affected  by  water. 

The  weight  of  evidence  at  the  present  time 
seems  to  indicate  that  Portland  cement  is  really 
a  colloidal  or  jelly-like  substance  when  set  and 
that  such  crystals  as  do  exist,  being  chiefly 
calcium  hydroxide,  are  only  incidental  to  the 
process  of  setting  and  do  not  constitute  the  real 
binding  material.  According  to  the  most 
widely  accepted  theory  at  the  present  time, 
cement  absorbs  water  much  as  glue  absorbs  cold 
water  by  swelling,  but  without  dissolving.  A 
chemical  change  then  takes  place  which  liberates 
part  of  the  lime.  This  crystallizes  out,  leaving 
the  mass  harder  and  less  affected  by  water  than 

*Lieut.-Col.  Alfred  White,  formerly  Professor  of  Chemical  En- 
gineering, University  of  Michigan,  has  written  an  exhaustive  treatise 
upon  this  subject  entitled  "Volume  Changes  in  Concrete."  This 
article  was  presented  at  a  meeting  of  the  International  Engineering 
Congress,  1915,  in  San  Francisco.  It  was  printed  in  the  Sept.- 
Oct.  and  Nov. -Dec.  1915  issues  of  Structural  Conservation. 


before,  but  still  in  a  colloidal  or  plastic  condi- 
tion. As  the  mass  dries  this  colloid  shrinks 
slightly  and  slowly,  but  never  loses  its  colloidal 
nature  and  upon  being  wet  again,  expands 
once  more. 

This  phenomena  has  been  observed  by  many 
experimentors,  especially  Professors  Campbell 
and  *  White  at  the  University  of  Michigan, 
who  have  carried  out  a  series  of  very  careful 
experiments  extending  over  many  years. 

They  found  that  dry  neat  cement  would 
expand  about  .05  to  .10%  of  its  length  when 
wet  for  a  long  period  and  would  contract  an 
equal  amount  when  dried  for  a  long  period. 
Similarly  concrete  expands  about  .02  to  .04% 
of  its  length  on  prolonged  wetting  and  returns 
to  its  original  length  on  drying. 

The  rate  of  this  expansion  and  contraction 
is  very  slow.  The  larger  portion  takes  place 
inside  of  three  weeks,  but  the  change  in  length 
continues  at  a  slower  rate  for  a  long  time. 

Similar  results  have  been  obtained  by  other 
experiments,  and  Considere,  the  French  engineer, 
has  reported  even  greater  changes  in  length,  as 
high  as  .15  to  2%  for  neat  cement. 

While  a  change  in  length  of  this  magnitude 
is  not  great  enough  to  appreciably  distort  the 
form  of  a  concrete  structure,  the  practical  im- 
portance of  taking  account  of  even  so  small  a 
change  in  length  may  be  seen  by  examining  the 
picture  on  page  23.  This  shows  a  building 
with  brick  bearing  walls  and  reinforced  concrete 
lintels  over  the  first  and  second  story  windows. 

After  building  the  walls  to  the  second  story 
level,  the  wooden  window  sash  was  put  in  place 
and  the  top  of  the  sash  used  as  a  bottom  for  the 
lintel  form.  The  second  story  walls  were  then 
built  and  the  upper  lintel  constructed  in  the  same 
fashion.  All  was  well  until  several  weeks  after 
the  first  lintel  was  poured  and  then  the  concrete 
being  thoroughly  dry,  the  top  of  the  lintel  con- 
tracted, while  the  bottom,  being  reinforced  with 
steel,  did  not  change  in  length.  The  result 
was  that  the  lintel  curled,  the  center  going  down, 
crushing  and  destroying  the  three  mullions. 

The  result  cannot  be  ascribed  to  any  failure 
because  the  lintel  was  well  designed  and  was 


sound,  hard  and  in  perfect  condition.  Also 
it  can  not  be  due  to  the  weight  of  the  concrete 
because  it  did  not  appear  until  several  weeks 
after  the  concrete  was  set  hard.  Moreover,  if 
it  had  been  due  to  the  weight  of  the  concrete 
or  to  settlement  in  the  brick  wall,  the  mullions 
on  the  second  floor  should  have  been  similarly 
damaged,  whereas  they  were  perfectly  straight. 
As  it  happened,  the  lower  lintel  curled  down 
first  and  a  few  weeks  later  the  upper  littel  bowed 
down  an  equal  amount  so  that  the  second  story 
lintels  were  not  crushed. 

When  steel  is  imbedded  in  concrete  this 
expansion  and  contraction  introduces  stresses 
of  considerable  magnitude  both  in  the  steel  and 
in  the  concrete,  but  this  subject  is  rather  for 
the  student  of  reinforced  concrete  than  for  one 
interested  in  waterproofing. 

An  interesting  observation  was  made  by 
Professor  White  at  Ann 
Arbor.  He  found  that 
a  certain  old  cement 
sidewalk  which  laid  per- 
fectly flat  when  dry  and 
even  showed  open 
cracks,  would  expand 
so  much  after  a  pro- 
longed period  of  rain 
that  the  cracks  would 
close  and  even  force  the 
walk  to  rise  up  in  some 
places.  By  observing 
the  temperature  he 
proved  that  this  was 
not  due  to  thermal  ex- 
pansion. 

It  has  often  been 
a  matter  of  speculation 
among  users  of  con- 
crete blocks  as  to  why  a 
long  wall  built  of  con- 
crete blocks  breaks  in- 
to sections  about  30  feet 
long,  separated  by  more 

or  less  irregular  vertical  cracks,  within  from 
one  to  six  months  after  being  erected. 

The  reason  is  this.  If  the  blocks  are  put  up 
wet  they  contract  and  produce  shrinkage  cracks. 
If  the  blocks  are  dry  then  they  expand  during 
the  first  spell  of  wet  weather,  pushing  the  ends 
of  the  wall  outward  because  the  compressive 
strength  of  the  concrete  is  large.  Later  when  the 
wall  dries  out  it  contracts.  If  now  the  wall  is 
short  (less  than  50  feet)  it  will  draw  itself  to- 
gether again.  If,  however,  the  wall  is  longer,  the 
force  necessary  to  draw  the  great  weight  of  the 
wall  along  the  ground  will  be  too  much  for  the 
weak  tensile  strength  of  the  concrete  and  it 
breaks  up  into  small  sections. 

Allied  to  the  expansion  of  cement  upon 
wetting  is  the  property  of  concrete  mentioned 
in  the  beginning  of  this  chapter  of  losing  a  large 


portion  of  its  strength  upon  being  immersed  in 
water  for  a  day  or  two. 

This  property  has  long  been  observed,  but 
is  still  little  understood.  It  was  recognized  by 
the  National  Society  of  Cement  Users  in  their 
Standard  Specifications  for  cement  blocks  (Stand- 
ard No.  3,  Published  1909).  This  specification 
states  that  blocks  shall  be  tested  dry  and  also 
after  wetting  for  48  hours,  and  that  all  blocks 
should  be  rejected  which  lose  over  33j/£%  of 
their  strength,  unless  the  final  test  is  over  1,000 
pounds  per  square  inch.  A  similar  requirement 
may  be  found  in  the  requirements  of  the  New 
York  Bureau  of  Buildings  and  in  the  building 
codes  of  Philadelphia,  Cleveland  and  many 
other  cities. 

In  the  appendix  of  the  report  of  the  Bureau  of 
Buildings  of  New  York,  Borough  of  Manhattan, 
1911,  are  given  twenty  tests  on  concrete  bricks. 

These  tests  were  made 
by  breaking  the  bricks 
in  two  and  crushing 
one-half  while  dry  and 
other  half  after  being 
immersed  in  water.  The 
result  on  the  wet  half 
block  was  less  than 
that  on  the  dry  half 
block  in  every  case. 
The  loss  varied  from 
19.3%  to  36%  and  aver- 
aged 28%.  Judging 
from  the  crushing 
strengths,  all  of  these 
blocks  were  old  and  well 
seasoned. 

In  Engineering 
News,  Jan.  16,  1913, 
there  was  published  a 
letter  referring  to  the 
difficulties  encountered 
in  Jaying  concrete  drain 
tile  in  the  State  of  Iowa. 
The  tile  were  a  1-3  con- 
crete and  were  found  by  tests  to  be  sufficiently 
strong  to  sustain  the  necessary  earth  pressure.  In 
spite  of  this  it  was  found  that  many  of  them  crush- 
ed shortly  after  being  covered  up  and  becoming 
wet.  The  matter  was  taken  up  with  the  State 
University  of  Iowa  where  tests  were  made  to 
determine  the  effect  of  wetting  upon  the  strength 
of  the  tile.  Preliminary  experiments  showed 
that  the  tile  lost  from  40%  to  50%  of  its  strength 
shortly  after  wetting.  These  results  are  rather 
high  but  may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  the  con- 
crete used  in  drain  tile  is  made  of  cement  and 
sand  only,  large  stones  not  being  admissible  in 
these  products. 

Faber  and  Bowie  in  their  book  on  Reinforced 
Concrete  give  two  curves  showing  the  variation 
in  tensile  strength  of  concrete  upon  wetting  and 
drying.  These  curves  show  that  concrete  upon 


wetting  decreases  rapidly  in  strength  and  then 
after  prolonged  wetting  slowly  regains  its 
strength.  If  after  prolonged  immersion  in  water 
the  sample  is  taken  out  and  dried,  another  con- 
siderable decrease  in  strength  is  observed,  but 
after  prolonged  drying  the  strength  gradually 
returns. 

In  each  case  the  rate  of  recovery  of  strength 
is  very  similar  to  the  increase  of  strength  of 
green  concrete  upon  being  aged.  The  increase 
starts  shortly  after  becoming  completely  sat- 
urated with  water.  The  rate  of  increase  is  rapid 
at  first,  decreasing  with  time  so  that  after  a  few 
weeks  it  is  practically  negligible. 

Viewed  in  this  light  the  wetting  and  drying 
of  concrete  becomes  exceedingly  important, 
structurally.  It  means  that  we  must  use  a  factor 
of  safety  nearly  twice  as  large  as  is  required  for 
other  materials  or  risk  failure.  Obviously  the 
moral  is  to  prevent  the  wetting  and  drying,  that 
is,  to  prevent  rapid  changes  in  the  moisture 
content  of  all  structural  concrete.  In  other 
words  structural  concrete  exposed  to  the  action 
of  water  should  always  be  waterproofed. 

Before  closing  this  chapter,  I  wish  to  take  up 
one  question  that  has  undoubtedly  occurred  in 


the  mind  of  the  reader,  that  is:  just  what  con- 
nection is  there  between  the  expansion  of  cement 
on  wetting  and  the  loss  of  strength  of  concrete 
when  wet.  An  adequate  discussion  of  the  matter 
is  not  possible  here  and  the  author  does  not 
pretend  to  understand  just  what  the  mechanism 
of  the  phenomena  is,  still  there  is  good  reason  to 
believe  that  it  comes  about  somewhat  as  follows : 

Concrete  is  composed  of  hard  particles  of 
sand,  stone,  etc.,  which  are  impervious  and  are 
not  affected  by  water.  Between  these  particles 
are  layers  of  pure  cement  which  expand  appre- 
ciably when  saturated  with  water.  If  we  con- 
sider one  grain  of  sand  with  a  small  amount  of 
pure  cement  adhering  firmly  to  one  side,  we  see 
that  the  cement  must  be  compressed  and  the 
sand  stretched,  otherwise  the  two  could  not 
remain  together.  This  creates  a  shearing  force 
along  the  plane  separating  the  particles.  From 
this  we  can  see  that  the  mass  of  concrete  would 
become  filled  with  innumerable  small  shearing 
forces  of  considerable  magnitude,  in  other 
words  the  mass  would  be  under  great  internal 
strain. 

Internal  strains  always  weaken  a  mass  and 
this  undoubtedly  accounts  for  the  decrease  in 


27  days  la 
wmter 


567 

Days  in  air- 


Curve  Showing  Effect  of  Drying  a  Specimen  of  Concrete  Previously  Immersed. 

Faber  &  Bowie 


strength.  Drying  the  mass  causes  a  short- 
ening of  the  cement  particles  and  therefore 
produces  a  similar  result,  as  this  also  produces 
internal  strain. 

As  was  said  before,  set  Portland  cement  is 
a  plastic  colloidal  substance.  Now  all  plastic 
bodies  under  strain  are  gradually  distorted  so 
as  to  release  the  strain.  In  just  this  way  the 
cement  portion  of  concrete  gradually  becomes 
distorted,  stretched  or  shortened  as  the  case 
may  require,  until  the  internal  strains  are  released, 
allowing  the  mass  to  approach  the  strength  it 
would  have  if  entirely  free  from  internal  strain. 
This  probably  accounts  for  the  gradual  increase 
in  strength  of  concrete  either  when  first  aged 
or  when  subject  to  alternate  wetting  and  drying. 

In  spite  of  the  vast  amount  of  experimenting 
that  has  been  done  upon  the  properties  of  con- 
crete, the  effect  of  alternate  wetting  and  drying 
is  a  subject  which  has  scarcely  been  touched. 
Enough  is  known,  however,  to  teach  us  that  it  is 
a  matter  to  be  reckoned  with  and  that  rapid 
changes  in  the  moisture  content  of  concrete  must 


be  avoided  where  structural  economy  is  a  con- 
sideration. 


The  illustrations  on  the  next  page  show 
very  interestingly  the  result  of  alternate  wetting 
and  drying  discussed  in  this  chapter.  They 
give  added  testimony  to  the  results  which  will 
occur  when  the  conditions  for  the  expansion 
resulting  from  alternate  wetting  and  drying  are 
not  favorable  to  allow  this  change  to  take  place. 

The  curb  shown  in  Figure  3  was  erected  in 
connection  with  a  reinforced  concrete  pavement. 
The  necessary  provisions  for  expansion  were  not 
made  and  after  a  term  of  a  few  months,  the  curb 
became  internally  heavily  compressed,  due  to 
the  strain  of  the  increased  volume  which  ulti- 
mately manifested  itself  in  the  rupture  as  shown. 

A  curb  of  a  concrete  pavement  is  obviously 
a  very  representative  installation  of  concrete 
that  would  likely  be  subject  to  the  alternate 
conditions  of  wetting  and  drying.  The  pave- 
ment poured  to  crown  naturally  drains  the 
water  toward  the  curb,  which  holds  it  as  it  is 


7  days  water 
20  days  air 


4         5        6         7 

-Days  in  water 


8 


10       11 


Curve  Showing  Effect  of  Immersing  a  Specimen  of  Concrete  Previously  Dry. 
Faber  &  Bowie. 


Figure  No.  1 


Figure  No.  2 


Figure  No.  3 


being  carried  to  the  sewage  outlet.  This  gives 
opportunity  for  considerable  free  contact  of  the 
concrete  with  the  flowing  water  to  permit  its 
absorption  and  penetration  into  the  concrete 
mass  so  as  to  thoroughly  expand  the  colloid  and 
cause  the  natural  increase  in  volume  accompan- 
ied by  the  wetting  or  saturation  of  the  concrete 
mass. 

After  the  water  has  drained  out,  the  curb 
with  its  fairly  large  percentage  of  exposed  sur- 
face, permits  quite  free  evaporation  of  the  water 
and  the  resultant  contraction  in  the  concrete 
as  it  dries  out.  This  alternate  saturation  and 
subsequent  drying  has  caused  to  accumulate  a 
slow,  additive  increase  in  volume  with  the  result 
as  illustrated. 

This  is  but  an  added  illustration  of  cases 
where  the  concrete  should  be  thoroughly  water- 
proofed so  as  to  avoid  the  free  penetration  of 
moisture.  If  this  curb  had  been  constructed  of 
concrete  that  was  thoroughly  waterproofed  so  as 


to  avoid  any  absorption  or  penetration  of  moist- 
ure, it  would  have  remained  in  constant  vol- 
ume, and  it  would  have  been  protected  against 
destruction. 

It  is  cases  of  this  character  that  are  bringing 
to  the  attention  of  architects  and  engineers  the 
necessity  of  using  greater  care  and  caution  in 
concrete  that  is  exposed  particularly  to  weather 
conditions. 

While  the  difficulty  may  not  be  so  important 
in  concrete  that  is  enclosed  and  is  protected 
from  alternate  wetting  and  drying,  yet  for  all 
character  of  construction  where  there  is  oppor- 
tunity for  occasional  wetting  and  subsequent 
drying  or  for  alternate  conditions  of  this  char- 
acter taking  place,  the  concrete  should,  in  addi- 
tion to  careful  proportioning  and  the  exercising 
of  considerable  care  in  placing,  be  thoroughly 
waterproofed  so  as  to  prevent  the  changes  in 
volume  that  invariably  occur  where  the  entrance 
of  the  water  is  not  prohibited. 


Chalmers  Motor  Co.,  Detroit,  Michigan.     Albert  Kahn,  Architect,  Ernest  Wilby,  Associate 

Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste  Concentrated,  used  in  concrete  work. 


CHAPTER  SIX 

Integral  Waterproofing  with  Particular 
Reference  to  the  Mass  Method 

By  A.  D.  Hyman,  Waterproofing  Engineer,  New  York  City 

The  Function  of  Waterproofing  Compounds — What  Waterproofing  cannot  do — Composition  of 
Concrete — Proper  Proportioning — Amount  of  Gauging  Water — Correct  Proportioning  of  Water- 
proofing Compounds — Cautions  on  Concreting  Work — Importance  of  Proper  Bond  in  Construc- 
tion Joints — How  to  provide  proper  Bond — Necessity  of  Removing  Water  Pressure  during  Con- 
struction— How  this  can  be  done — Six  Important  Considerations  in  Waterproofing. 


That  method  of  Masonry  Waterproofing 
whereby  a  chemical  compound  is  diffused 
throughout  a  hydraulic  cement  product  is  popu- 
larly known  as  the  Integral  Method.  Variations 
of  this  general  method  appearing  under  trade 
names  or  terms  descriptive  of  the  operations 
involved  or  the  products  employed  are  in 
vogue,  but  all  may  be  classified  under  the 
headings,  THE  CEMENT  COATING  PRO- 
CESS and  THE  WATERPROOFED  CON- 
CRETE METHOD. 

In  the  former  a  facing  or  coating  of  Water- 
proofed Cement  Mortar  is  applied  over  the  sur- 
face of  the  member  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be 
securely  bonded  to  it.  For  substructural  water- 
proofing, this  is  generally  placed  upon  the  inner 
faces  of  the  walls  and  over  the  upper  surface  of 
the  floor-slab,  its  disposition  being  such  that  it 
can  be  installed  with  minimum  expense,  and 
also  that  it  may  act  as  the  floor  wearing  surface 
and  wall  plaster  finish.  It  is  proposed  herein  to 
deal  particularly  with  the  WATERPROOFED 
CONCRETE  METHOD  in  which  the  Integral 
Compound  is  diffused  throughout  and  becomes 
an  integral  part  of  the  mass  concrete. 

Ijl  order  to  have  a  full  comprehension  of  the 
considerations,  which  enter  into  the  successful 
application  of  this  method  of  waterproofing,  one 
must  first  have  a  knowledge  as  to  the  part  the 
waterproofing  compound  itself  is  called  upon  to 
play.  The  whole  system  of  Integral  Water- 
proofing has  been  condemned  in  numerous 
instances  because  of  the  lack  of  understanding 
as  to  its  exact  function. 

Without  entering  into  the  technique  of  the 
setting  of  cement,  the  attention  is  directed  to 
that  noteworthy  feature  of  concrete,  that  even 
though  of  perfect  proportioning  and  mixing,  it 
contains  innumerable  minute  voids  in  the  form 
of  hollows  and  ducts  or  channels,  left  by  the 


inability  of  the  particles  to  properly  arrange 
themselves  to  secure  an  absolutely  dense  mass, 
and  also  by  the  evaporation  of  the  excess  of  the 
gauging  or  tempering  water.  The  larger  of 
these  pores  can  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye, 
but  the  microscope  reveals  the  actual  porosity  of 
any  concrete  specimen.  These  voids  allow  not 
only  the  infiltration  of  water  when  the  concrete 
is  under  pressure,  but  their  capillarity  causes 
the  water  to  be  absorbed  to  a  height,  even 
greater  than  the  water  level  outside  the  masonry. 

It  is  the  function  of  the  Integral  Compound 
to  correct  this  inherent  porosity  of  the  Cement 
Product  by  filling  these  tiny  voids  or  making 
negative  their  capillarity.  It  is  a  well-known 
fact  that  the  sand  should  just  fill  the  interstices 
of  the  stone  or  gravel  and  the  cement  should  be 
at  least  sufficient  in  quantity  to  fill  those  of  the 
sand.  In  turn  the  Waterproofing  Compound  is 
called  upon  merely  to  act  upon  the  pores  be- 
tween the  particles  of  the  crystallized  cement 
and  sand  and  those  within  the  cement  content 
itself.  It  is  not  capable,  however,  of  remedy- 
ing any  defects  of  construction  or  design, 
nor  to  correct  improper  and  defective 
materials  and  workmanship.  The  cement, 
sand  and  aggregate  must  fully  perform  their 
respective  functions  and  this  will  obtain  only  in 
first  class  masonry.  Abuse  and  condemnation 
have  been  heaped  upon  Integral  Compounds 
where  the  fault  lies  entirely  with  the  concrete 
work,  and  until  the  fundamental  function  of 
these  compounds  is  universally  appreciated  as 
well  as  the  necessity  for  fulfilling  the  conditions 
for  obtaining  good  concrete,  the  real  merit  of 
Integral  Waterproofing  will  not  be  fully  asserted. 
Unless  the  masonry  be  first  class  in  every  respect 
it  is  a  useless  expenditure,  and  a  detriment  to 
the  waterproofing  industry  to  employ  an  Integral 
Material. 


Dwelling  briefly  upon  the  essentials  for  good 
concrete,  first,  only  proper  materials  should  be 
used.  Good  cement  costs  no  more  ordinarily 
than  cements  of  poor  quality,  so  this  important 
component  is  generally  all  that  is  to  be  desired. 
As  for  the  sand  and  gravel  content,  however, 
there  is  much  room  for  comment.  Particularly 
in  outlying  districts  where  the  importation  of 
these  materials  is  an  item  of  considerable  ex- 
pense, the  importance  of  good,  coarse,  clean 
sand  and  gravel  is  often  minimized  and  local 
materials  used  when  they  are  entirely  unfit. 
"Run  of  the  bank"  aggregate  is  often  employed 
although  there  is  almost  invariably  a  large  excess 
in  sand,  and  to  fill  the  sand  voids  and  thus 
secure  concrete  of  normal  structural  strength,  it 
is  necessary  to  incorporate  an  abnormally  large 
quantity  of  cement.  Besides  the  surplus  of  fine 
particles,  "bank  run"  material  usually  contains 
a  large  percentage  of  loam,  clay  and  other 
foreign  materials  deleterious  to  good  concrete. 


The  proper  proportioning  and  adequate  mix- 
ing of  the  ingredients  are  of  quite  equal  im- 
portance to  their  quality,  all  of  which  is  obvious 
but  often  neglected.  A  lean  mixture  of  concrete 
may  be  far  superior  to  a  rich  one  if  the  mixing 
of  the  ingredients  be  more  thorough. 

The  amount  of  gauging  water  is  also  to  be 
considered,  and  for  best  results  as  to  density 
and  also  for  strength,  a  mass  of  quaking  con- 
sistency should  be  obtained.  In  field  work,  it  is 
of  course  impossible  to  so  regulate  the  water, 
that  all  batches  will  be  of  like  consistency  and 
indeed  this  is  not  necessary.  However,  it  should 
be  borne  in  mind  that  mixtures  too  dry  are 
porous  as  the  particles  fail  to  compact  them- 
selves from  lack  of  lubrication,  while  the 
extremely  wet  mixtures  are  porous  from  the 
hollows  left  by  the  evaporation  of  the  large 
excess  of  gauging  water.  It  should,  therefore, 
be  the  constant  endeavor  in  Waterproofed  Con- 
crete work,  to  so  regulate  the  water  supply  that 


No.  1  Section  of  Retaining  Wall  showing  leakage  of  construction  joints,  a  common  defect  of  ordinary  concrete  work. 


the  mass  be  as  near  "quaking  consistency"  as 
possible.  For  cement  floor  work,  to  secure  max- 
imum density  and  hardness  the  consistency 
should  be  such  that  a  pailful  of  mortar  will  just 
retain  its  form  when  upended  and  pail  removed. 
Concrete,  however,  should  be  deposited  some- 
what wetter  than  this. 

The    correct    proportioning    and    thorough 
diffusion  of  the  Waterproofing  Compound  also 


View  No.  2 

One  Outlet  for  Water  Removed  from  Foundation  of  Riverside  Station, 
Elmira,  N.  Y.,  During  Process  of  Construction 

demands  attention.  Since  the  duty  of  this 
material  relates  to  the  cement  voids  the  quan- 
tity to  be  used  is  a  direct  function  of  the  cement 
content  in  the  mortar  or  concrete.  This  state- 
ment appears  paradoxical  since  theoretically 
more  Waterproofing  would  be  required  for  a 
lean  mixture  than  for  a  rich  one.  However,  the 
matter  is  clarified  when  it  is  remembered  that 
the  concrete  itself  must  be  of  dense  nature,  the 
cement  matrix  being  sufficient  in  quantity  to 
completely  fill  the  stone  or  gravel  voids.  Only 
the  richer  mixtures  should  be  used,  and  for 
concrete  subjected  to  hydrostatic  pressure  this 
should  not  be  appreciably  leaner  than  1:2:4. 

For  maximum  efficiency  Waterproofing  Com- 
pound should  be  added  in  quantity  up  to  that 
point  where  a  further  increment  would  have  a 
weakening  effect  upon  the  strength  of  the 
cement.  The  quantities  advocated  by  the 
manufacturers  of  the  materials  are  generally 
considerably  less  than  the  allowable  maximum 
for  economy's  sake  and  to  allow  an  ample 
margin  of  safety,  and  it  is  advisable  always  to 
follow  their  directions  in  this  regard.  There  is 
a  general  tendency  to  increase  the  quantity  of 


the  compound  in  the  members  subjected  to^the 
greatest  pressure,  but  this  is  to  be  discouraged 
unless  it  be  authoritatively  ascertained  that  the 
allowable  quantity  limit  is  not  thereby  exceeded. 
Special  care  should  be  observed  in  the  complete 
diffusion  of  the  Compound  throughout  t;he  mass 
as  this  is  manifestly  of  equal  importance  to  its 
correct  proportioning.  An  excess  of  Water- 
proofing material  in  one  section  and  a  deficiency 
in  another  is  of  course  a  highly  undesirable 
condition. 

It  is  often  maintained  that  if  proper  care  be 
taken  in  the  proportioning,  mixing  and  placing 
of  the  ingredients,  impervious  concrete  can  be 
obtained  without  resorting  to  Integral  Com- 
pounds, and  indeed  laboratory  tests  substantiate 
this  assertion.  However,  in  field  operations 
where  ideal  conditions  do  not  prevail,  even  the 
best  concrete  will  allow  the  infiltration  of  water 
through  portions  at  least,  and  comparative  sec- 
tions of  concrete  with  and  without  a  standard 
Integral  Waterproofing  Agent,  will  prove  the 
fallacy  of  the  assumption  under  working  condi- 
tions. 

The  concrete  should  be  carefully  deposited  in 
the  forms — never  dropped  from  a  sufficient  height 
to  separate  the  ingredients.  The  mass  should 
be  well  spaded,  particularly  those  portions  at 
the  faces,  so  as  to  avoid  honeycombing.  All 
wooden  spreaders  and  in  fact  wood  of  every 
description  should  be  removed  from  the 
plastic  mass.  Not  only  is  wood  decidedly 
pervious  but  its  swelling  and  subsequent  warp- 
ing if  it  come  into  contact  with  water,  will  cause 
internal  stresses  which  may  prove  serious.  All 
bolts  and  wire  fastenings  should  be  cut  off  at 
least  an  inch  from  the  face  of  the  concrete  and 
the  resultant  holes  pointed  up. 

Tight  forms  well  braced  are  a  prime  requi- 
site, as  the  cement  water  which  is  allowed  to 
escape  from  loosely  constructed  and  inade- 
quately braced  forms,  contains  the  richest  part 
of  the  strength-giving  matrix. 

A  most  important  factor  for  Waterproofed 
Concrete  and  one  perhaps  most  often  neglected 
is  the  securing  of  a  proper  bond  at  the  construc- 
tion joints,  vertically  and  horizontally,  for  unless 
due  precautions  be  observed,  these  will  develop 
planes  of  weakness.  View  No.  1  illustrates  a 
section  of  retaining  wall  of  a  bridge  approach  of 
a  prominent  western  railroad.  The  seepage  at 
the  joints  between  the  different  days'  work  is  a 
salient  feature  of  the  work,  but  indeed  this 
fault  is  so  general  in  ordinary  concrete  work  of 
this  nature  that  it  creates  but  little  attention. 
However  in  Waterproofed  Concrete  Work  such 
faults  must  not  exist  for  obvious  reasons.  At 
horizontal  joints,  laitance  consisting  of  inert 
particles  of  cement  and  an  excess  of  Waterproof- 
ing Compound  collecting  at  the  surface  of  con- 


crete,  must  be  removed  and  the  surface  scarified 
before  new  material  is  deposited  upon  it.  The 
importance  of  this  measure  cannot  be  over- 
estimated and  yet  its  extreme  necessity  is  rarely 
appreciated.  After  the  removal  of  the  bulk- 
heads the  vertical  surfaces  should  be  thoroughly 
roughened  (except  in  the  case  of  expansion  joints) 
preparatory  to  depositing  the  concrete  in  the 
adjoining  section.  For  small  structures  or  por- 
tions subjected  to  great  pressure  as  pits,  etc.,  the 
concrete  work  should  be  carried  continuously 
to  eliminate  construction  joints. 

A  consideration  to  which  many  failures  in 
Waterproofed  Concrete  may  be  attributed  is 
that  relating  to  water-pressure  existing  during 
construction.  An  axiom  for  successful  Integral 
Waterproofing  is  that  "Ground  water,  whether 
running  or  confined,  must  be  kept  away 
from  the  mass  until  final  set  has  been 
attained."  If  water  under  pressure  be  allowed 


to  percolate  through  the  plastic  concrete,  chan- 
nels are  formed  and  its  efficiency  as  a  Water- 
proofing Medium  is  destroyed.  This  principle 
is  of  great  importance  and  to  ignore  it  is  to  court 
trouble  and  inevitable  failure.  Ordinary  con- 
crete can  be  deposited  under  water  often  with 
very  good  results  but  not  so  with  Waterproofed 
Concrete  or  Mortar.  Water  should  not  be  per- 
mitted to  come  into  contact  with  any  part  of 
the  cement  product  until  it  is  fully  capable  of 
resisting  the  pressure,  and  draining  and  pump- 
ing or  bailing  must  be  resorted  to  when  neces- 
sary to  fulfill  this  requirement.  View  No.  2 
indicates  the  large  quantity  of  water  removed 
during  the  progress  of  construction  of  the 
Riverside  Station  at  Elmira,  N.  Y.  Two  wooden 
stave  pipes  as  outlets  for  the  steam  and  electric 
pumps  which  operated  continuously  during  the 
critical  stages  of  construction,  discharged  up- 
wards of  10,000,000  gallons  of  water  per  day. 


View  No.  3.  Indicating  method  of  controlling  water  during  construction  work.     Note  the  wooden  box  drain  at  cutside  of  concrete  floor  slab- 


When  the  quantity  of  ground  water  is  con- 
siderable, the  earth  slope  should  be  kept  suffi- 
ciently outside  the  neat  line  of  wall  to  permit 
the  construction  of  a  box  or  tile  drain,  (shown 
in  View  No.  3)  or  an  open  ditch  at  the  level  of 
lowest  portion  of  Waterproofed  masonry  so 
that  the  water  may  be  lead  to  a  sump-pit  thus 
relieving  the  pressure  from  the  walls.  Before 
the  construction  of  the  floor-slab  a  layer  of 
gravel,  broken  stone  or  cinders  3  inches  to  6 
inches  in  thickness  should  be  deposited  for  the 
dual  purpose  of  allowing  free  access  of  the 
water  to  the  sump-pit  during  the  progress  pf 
work  and  for  equalizing  the  pressure  after  the 
structure  is  completed.  Sub-floor  drains  should 
be  constructed,  if  necessary.  In  the  case  of  heavy 
clay,  or  other  impervious  soils  it  not  infrequently 
happens  if  the  concrete  be  placed  directly  upon 
the  earth  that  the  pressure  over  one  portion  will 
be  considerable  while  over  another  it  may  be  nil. 
Therefore,  in  all  cases  where  pressure  exists  or 
is  likely  to  exist,  a  pressure  equalizing  medium  as 
indicated  should  be  installed. 

Expansion  joints  are  not  ordinarily  required 
for  sub-terra  work  but  for  retaining  walls,  etc., 
exposed  to  extreme  temperatures,  they  are  a 
necessity.  Copper  flashing  embedded  in  the 
adjoining  sections  of  the  masonry  at  the  ex- 
terior face  has  been  found  very  effective  in 
rendering  joints  watertight,  while  a  bitumi- 
nous or  rubber  mastic  spread  by  trowel  over  the 
vertical  sections  of  concrete  after  the  removal  of 
the  transverse  bulkheads  is  very  efficient  in 
permitting  the  required  expansion  and  con- 
traction of  the  concrete. 

Every  section  of  a  substructure  should  be 
carefully  designed  so  that  it  will  possess  suffi- 
cient strength  to  resist  all  possible  pressures 
and  its  foundation  such  as  to  preclude  settle- 
ment. The  Waterproofing  can  remain  effective 
only  so  long  as  the  bases  remain  in  a  sound  and 
stable  condition,  and  that  this  may  obtain  the 
substructure  must  act  as  a  caisson  in  resisting 
the  hydrostatic  pressure  while  the  structure 
itself  must  be  able  by  weight  to  counteract  the 
upward  lifting  force.  The  function  of  the 
Waterproofing  is  of  course  only  to  make  the 
members  impervious  and  not  in  any  way  to 
provide  structural  strength.  This  fact  is  often 
lost  sight  of,  however,  and  futile  attempts  are 
not  infrequently  made  to  waterproof  members 
not  able  to  resist  the  pressure.  A  rupture  in  the 
wall  or  floor-slab  is  the  result,  and  when  such 


occurs  only  too  often  is  the  fault  laid  at  the 
door  of  the  Waterproofing  System. 

Briefly  reviewing  our  discussion,  the  im- 
portant considerations  for  the  successful  con- 
struction of  Waterproofed  Concrete  may  be 
summed  up  as  follows: 

1st.  The  ingredients  for  the  concrete 
must  be  standard  in  every  respect;  the  sand 
must  be  clean  and  coarse  and  the  gravel  or 
broken  stone  of  best  quality. 

2nd.  The  integral  Compound  must  be 
of  tested  merit,  incorporated  in  accordance 
with  the  manufacturer's  directions  and 
thoroughly  diffused  throughout  the  mass. 

3rd.  The  ingredients  must  be  so  pro- 
portioned that  the  cement  will  completely 
fill  the  voids  (if  the  sand  and  the  matrix 
enter  into  all  voids)  of  the  aggregate. 
The  mixing  must  be  thorough  so  that  all 
parts  will  be  of  uniform  density,  and  a 
mass  of  "quaking  consistency"  should  be 
secured. 

4th.  Tight  forms  well  braced  are  an 
essential  to  good  results.  Care  must  be 
assumed  in  placing  the  concrete  with  par- 
ticular attention  to  the  spading  at  the 
faces  and  to  the  horizontal  joints  between 
the  different  days'  work.  No  wood  of  what- 
soever character  should  be  allowed  to 
to  remain  in  the  concrete. 

5th.  Ground  water  must  be  kept  from 
the  mass  until  it  is  capable  of  resisting  the 
destructive  action  of  the  water.  Drainage 
and  pumping  must  be  resorted  to  when 
necessary. 

6th.  Each  member  of  the  structure 
must  be  so  designed  and  constructed  that 
the  water  pressure  will  be  resisted  without 
exceeding  its  structural  strength.  The 
foundation  must  be  able  to  support  the 
structure  without  excessive  settlement, 
and  the  structure  as  a  whole  must  possess 
sufficient  weight  to  counter-act  the  lifting 
pressure. 

If  these  fundamental  conditions  be  fulfilled, 
good  results  are  assured.  Every  unsuccessful 
case  of  Integral  Waterproofing  in  the  past  may 
be  attributed  to  the  lack  of  regard  of  one  or 
more  of  these,  while  with  their  careful  obser- 
vance failure  is  impossible. 


CHAPTER  SEVEN 


Waterproofing  Stucco 

Why  Waterproofing  for  Stucco  is  Necessary — Penetration  of  Moisture  into  Pores  of  Stucco — 
Effect  on  Stucco  of  Freezing  of  this  Moisture — How  Waterproofing  relieves  this  condition — 
Porosity  of  Stucco  as  demonstrated  by  Test — Circumstances  of  Test — Practical  Illustrations  of 

Unwaterproofed  Stucco. 


When  properly  formulated,  stucco  consti- 
tutes one  of  the  most  ideal  building  materials. 
Rapidity  of  construction,  economy  of  labor  and 
material,  and  fireproofness  characterize  its  use. 
The  aggregate  necessary  for  the  stucco  is  avail- 
able in  every  locality  and  obviates  the  necessity 
of  transporting  materials  from  one  place  to 
another.  In  addition  to  these  valuable  qualities, 
stucco  is  exceedingly  durable  and  lends  itself 
admirably  to  artistic  effects. 

Stucco,  however,  to  fulfil  the  valuable  appli- 
cations to  which  it  can  be  applied,  must  first 
and  foremost  be  absolutely  waterproof.  With- 
out this  quality,  its  real  value  is  in  a  measure 
destroyed.  This  can  be  easily  comprehended 
when  the  nature  of  stucco  is  understood. 

In  the  mixing  of  cement  stucco,  the  amount 
of  water  used  is  largely  in  excess  of  that  required 
for  chemical  hardening  and  setting.  The  water, 
being  incompressible,  occupies  a  definite  volume. 
Upon  evaporation  of  this  excess  water,  the  space 
which  it  formerly  occupied  is  left  empty  in  the 
form  of  capillary  pores.  These  pores,  unless  pre- 
ventive measures  be  taken,  allow  for  penetra- 
tion of  moisture  which  results  in  cracking,  dis- 
integration, and  discoloration. 

Prof.  White*  has  shown  that  the  expansion 
and  contraction  of  concrete  due  to  temperature 
is  comparatively  insignificant  in  comparison  to 


*See  foot  note — Chapter  Five 


the  volume  changes  due  to  alternate  wetting  and 
drying.  Portland  Cement  mortar  or  concrete 
shows  a  marked  tendency  to  increase  in  volume 
when  wet  and  to  contract  when  dry.  This  action 
is  characterized  by  the  interesting  fact  that  the 
contraction  which  occurs  on  the  drying  out  of 
the  mortar  or  concrete  after  the  expansion  from 
wetting,  is  less  in  its  negative  value  than  the 
positive  increase  in  volume  which  occurs  from 
the  wetting.  This  naturally  results  in  a  slow 
additive  increase  in  volume  developing  from 
alternate  wetting  and  drying  which  ultimately 
develops  an  internal  strain  that  will  be  evidenced 
by  the  formation  of  cracks  in  the  stucco.  Natur- 
ally as  soon  as  the  cracking  occurs,  opportunity 
is  offered  for  the  deeper  penetration  and  concen- 
tration of  moisture  which  will  hasten  the  dis- 
integration of  the  stucco. 

This  penetration  of  moisture  has  a  further 
disintegrating  effect.  The  moisture  freezes  in 
winter,  and  upon  so  doing,  expands  9%  of  its 
volume.  The  tremendous  disruptive  force  thus 
produced  makes  it  easy  to  understand  why 
unwaterproofed  stucco  will  have  an  untimely 
end. 

The  illustrations  2  and  3,  on  the  following 
pages,  demonstrate  the  failure  of  stucco  which  has 
not  been  waterproofed.  In  Illustration  2,  the 
scaling  off  of  large  sections  is  primarily  caused 
by  water  penetrating  through  the  cracks  which 
have  formed,  and  on  collecting  back  of  the  stucco 


Plain 


Illustration  No.  1 

Imperfectly  Waterproofed 


Effectively  Waterproofed 


and  expanding  when  freezing,  thrusting  the 
stucco  away  from  the  surface.  Illustration  3 
shows  the  result  of  the  additive  increase  in  vol- 
ume due  to  alternate  wetting  and  drying  which 
have  created  the  internal  strains  which  in  turn 
have  expressed  themselves  in  definite  cracks. 

With  waterproofed  stucco,  there  is  no  oppor- 
tunity for  the  absorption  or  saturation  of  the 
stucco  with  water.  It  remains  in  practically 
constant  volume  subject  only  to  the  slight  chang- 
es in  volume  due  to  variation  in  temperature 
conditions. 

As  a  simple  test  to  physically  demonstrate 
the  natural  absorbent  nature  of  untreated  Port- 
land cement  stucco  as  compared  with  water- 
proofed mixtures,  a  series  of  4"  cubes  were  pre- 
pared composed  of  one  (1)  part  of  cement  to 


two  and  a  half  (2^)  parts  of  sand  by  volume. 
A  number  of  these  cubes  were  made  without 
waterproofing  treatment  in  order  that  the  full 
absorbent  nature  of  the  untreated  specimens 
could  be  observed  in  comparison  to  other  cubes 
which  were  prepared  with  the  addition  of  various 
integral  waterproofings. 

These  cubes  were  allowed  to  cure  for  seven 
days  in  a  moist  closet,  and  after  a  subsequent 
exposure  of  twenty-one  days  in  the  air,  were 
subjected  to  observations  to  determine  their 
absorbent  qualities.  A  bed  of  sand  of  a  depth 
of  about  three  inches  was  prepared  in  large 
sheet  metal  pans  which  were  filled  with  water 
so  as  to  thoroughly  saturate  the  sand.  Over 
the  surface  of  the  dampened  sand  was  placed  a 
layer  of  thin  cloth  which  immediately  became 


Illustration  No.  2 

Scaling  off  of  stucco  due  to  water  penetrating  pores  and  cracks.      Cn  collecting  back  of  stucco  and  expanding  when  freezing  this  water 
exerts  a  tremendous  disruptive  force  which  causes  the  condition  indicated  in  this  photograph. 


• 


Illustration  No.  3 

The  additive  increase  in  volume  due  to  alternate  wetting  and  drying  of  stucco  creates  internal  strains 
which  express  themselves  in  cracks.     This  illustrates  an  example  of  what  is  liable  to  befall 
stucco  unless  properly  waterproofed. 


fairly  wet  and  saturated  from  the  excess  of  mois- 
ture in  the  pans  of  wet  sand.  The  blocks  to  be 
tested  for  their  absorbent  qualities  were  placed 
on  the  cloth  resting  on  the  dampened  sand. 

The  conditions  of  this  test  were  designed  to 
provide  plenty  of  moisture  in  contact  with  the 
mass  of  the  block  under  normal  pressure  to 
observe  the  exact  rate  and  extent  of  the  pene- 
tration of  the  moisture  in  the  block  due  to 
natural  absorption. 

Illustration  1  shows  the  extent  to  which  the 
moisture  had  been  absorbed  into  a  plain  block 
after  a  period  of  about  seven  days,  during  which 
time  the  sand  was  kept  thoroughly  saturated  by 
the  regular  addition  of  water.  The  illustration 
also  shows  two  blocks  in  which  waterproofing 
treatments  were  only  partially  effective,  and 
while  the  absorption  is  not  as  much  as  with  a 
plain  block,  yet  it  is  insufficient  to  properly 
protect  the  stucco  against  the  natural  disinte- 
grating action  of  the  water. 

In  contrast  to  the  plain  block,  the  illustration 


also  shows  the  two  blocks  which  were  perfectly 
waterproofed  and  in  which  there  was  practically 
no  absorption  after  a  period  of  seven  days  in 
contact  with  a  moist  saturated  sand. 

Taking  into  consideration  the  laboratory 
tests  and  the  actual  demonstrations  furnished 
by  stucco  buildings,  there  is  little  to  be  argued 
against  the  practice  of  waterproofing  all  stucco 
construction.  With  the  presence  of  water- 
proofing, instead  of  the  stucco  becoming  con- 
tinually wet  and  saturated,  in  which  condition 
it  is  subject  to  slow  decay  and  disintegration, 
the  stucco  is  made  absolutely  impermeable  and 
non-absorbent.  The  moisture  is  absolutely 
excluded  from  entrance  and  confined  to  simply 
superficial  contact.  The  stucco  is  made  crack- 
proof  and  permanent. 

Waterproofing  stucco  is  a  very  simple  and 
inexpensive  matter.  A  very  small  amount  of 
waterproofing  material  is  required  and  this  is 
added  simply  and  directly  to  the  water  used  in 
mixing  the  concrete  mortar.  Directions  for 
waterproofing  stucco  are  on  page  70. 


CHAPTER  EIGHT 


Integral  Waterproofing  by  the  Cement 

Coating  Process 

By  A.  D.  Hyman, 
Chief  Engineer  of  the  Waterproofing  &  Construction  Co.,  New  York  City 

Introductory  Discussion— The  Cement  Coating  Process — Preliminary  Steps — Preparation  of 
Surface  for  Bond— Preparation  of  Plaster  Coat— Plaster  Coat  Ingredients  and  their  Properties — 
Thickness  of  Coat  for  Walls  and  Floor— Necessity  of  Continuity  of  Plaster  Coat— Necessity  of 
Insulating  Waterproofing  under  Abnormal '  Conditions — Construction  Joints  between  different 
day's  work — How  to  Eliminate  Weaknesses  from  appearing — Bleeding  Walls  to  Remove  Pressure 
— Construction  of  Drainage  System  to  eliminate  pressure — Concluding  Comments. 


The  term  "INTEGRAL  WATERPROOF- 
ING" is  authoritatively  intended  to  include 
any  method  whereby  a  chemical  compound  is 
introduced  into  a  hydraulic  cement  product 
with  the  view  of  creating  impermeability. 

This  general  type  of  waterproofing  is  sub- 
divided into  two  separate  and  distinct  methods, 
each  of  which  possesses  characteristics  that 
afford  it  individual  merit  and  advantages.  That 
method  whereby  a  Waterproof  Cement  Facing 
or  Coating  is  applied  over  the  surface  of  the 
members  is  termed  the  CEMENT  COATING 
PROCESS,  while  that  method  in  which  the 
waterproofing  material  is  incorporated  through- 
out the  mass  concrete  of  the  structural  members 
is  characterized  as  the  WATERPROOFED 
CONCRETE  METHOD.* 

The  manner  by  which  the  Waterproofing 
Compound  is  introduced  into  the  mortar  or 
concrete  varies  with  the  nature  of  the  product. 
Waterproofing  Powders  are  usually  mixed  with 
the  cement  either  at  the  mill,  or  by  hand  just 
before  use  upon  the  job.  Liquid  compounds 
are  generally  diluted  with  water  and  poured 
upon  the  dry  mixture  of  sand  and  cement  or 
charged  directly  into  the  concrete  mixer,  while 
pastes  are  diffused  throughout  the  tempering 
water.  Manufacturers'  directions  for  each 
individual  material  should  be  rigidly  adhered 
to  in  all  cases.  It  is  of  the  greatest  importance 
that  the  recommended  quantity  be  incorpor- 
ated, and  it  is  manifestly  of  equal  importance 
that  the  material  be  uniformly  distributed 
throughout  the  mass. 

*The  writer  assumes  responsibility  for  coining  these  expressions 
descriptive  of  the  two  general  methods,  and  as  hitherto  a  great  deal 
of  confusion  has  existed  in  the  construction  of  the  term  "Integral 
Waterproofing,"  as  to  which  of  the  methods  is  referred  to,  he  trusts 
that  these  expressions  will  come  into  standard  usage. 


For  maximum  efficiency  the  greatest  amount 
of  waterproofing  material  should  be  utilized 
without  impairing  the  strength  of  the  cement. 
Since,  however,  an  excessive  amount  does  tend 
to  cause  a  decrease  in  the  setting  values,  such 
excess  should  not  be  present  in  any  portion  of 
the  final  cement  product. 

The  inference  deducted  by  the  layman  who 
has  but  casually  investigated  the  subject,  that 
the  more  material  used  the  greater  the  efficiency, 
is  vitally  in  error  in  INTEGRAL  WATER- 
PROOFING. The  writer  has  in  mind  an  in- 
stance of  a  superintendent  "wisely"  instructing 
his  foreman  to  use  the  Waterproofing  "double 
strength"  for  a  certain  piece  of  work  where  the 
pressure  was  unusually  great,  and  another  where 
a  Waterproofing  Powder  Compound  was  used 
in  its  undiluted  state  by  throwing  it  against 
the  surface  in  attempts  to  remedy  a  leaky  pit. 
Such  cases  appear  absurd  to  anyone  familiar 
with  the  subject,  but  Waterproofing  Compounds 
are  maltreated  and  misused  perhaps  to  a  greater 
extent  than  any  other  building  commodity,  this 
being  due  largely  to  the  lack  of  appreciation 
that  Masonry  Waterproofing  presents  a  truly 
scientific  proposition. 

INTEGRAL  WATERPROOFING  when  in- 
telligently executed  is  perhaps  the  most  effi- 
cacious of  all  the  systems  in  vogue,  and  the  fact 
that  it  has  been  condemned  in  innumerable 
instances'  is  due  entirely  to  incorrect  usage, 
improper  application  and  the  lack  of  compre- 
hension in  its  exact  function. 

Of  the  two  methods  under  discussion,  the 
CEMENT  COATING  PROCESS  especially  re- 
quires the  utmost  diligence  to  secure  the  de- 


sired  result.  In  fact,  this  work  should  prefer- 
ably be  undertaken  by  a  specialist  in  this  par- 
ticular line,  as  the  necessary  observances  and 
the  precautionary  measures  are  of  such  import- 
ance that  the  average  contractor  is  not  fully 
qualified  for  the  successful  performance  of  the 
work. 

Before  applying  the  Waterproofed  Coating 
the  surfaces  must  be  especially  prepared  that 
a  suitable  bond  be  obtained.  In  fact,  this  prep- 
aration of  surface  is  most  important  and  many 
of  the  past  failures  in  the  application  of  the 
Process  may  be  attributed  to  the  lack  of  care  in 
this  operation. 

The  proper  bonding  face  is  obtained  by 
thoroughly  roughening,  cleaning  and  grouting 
the  surface.  The  Wall  or  Floor  Slab  must  be 
saturated  with  clean  water  to  destroy  excessive 
capillarity,  for  otherwise  the  pores  of  the  ma- 
sonry will  absorb  a  large  percentage  of  the 
gauging  water  together  with  the  finer  particles 
of  cement,  and  the  strength  and  efficiency  of 


the  Coating  be  impaired.  Particularly  in  the 
case  of  brick  walls  or  floors  should  the  members 
be  thoroughly  wet  down  owing  to  the  great 
absorptive  property  of  this  material.  A  slight 
amoiirit  of  absorption  is  desired,  however,  as  it 
assists  materially  in  obtaining  the  necessary 
bond. 

In  the  case  of  concrete  walls  the  entire  face 
is  chipped  to  expose  the  aggregate,  while  for 
brick  and  rubble  the  joints  are  raked  and  the 
surfaces  roughened.  For  floors  it  is  highly 
advantageous  to  apply  the  Waterproof  Coating 
the  day  following  the  placement  of  the  concrete 
slab  in  order  to  simplify  the  bonding  operation. 
When  the  Coating  is  applied  over  old  concrete 
floors  similar  precautions  as  for  walls  must  be 
observed. 

THE  CEMENT  COATING  is  prepared  by 
an  intimate  mixture  of  Portland  Cement  and 
coarse  sand  with  the  incorporation  of  an  Integ- 
ral Waterproofing  Compound.  Proportions  of 
one  part  cement  to  two  parts  sand  are  best 


Plate  No.  1 

Typical  view  showing  waterproofing  work  in  progress.    Site  of  future  Boilers  of  Ward  Bakery  Co.,  East  Orange,  N.  J.    Pit  at  the  left  for  fire 
boxes   of  boilers;    floor  grade  at  elevation  of  top  of  wall  in  foreground  allowing  the  entire  area  under  boiler  depressed  to  allow  for  insulating 
coat.    Complete  substructure  of  this  building  waterproofed  by  the  Cement  Coating  Process. 


adaptable  for  the  purpose,  as  mixtures  consid- 
erably leaner  than  this  are  too  porous,  whereas 
Coatings  of  richer  mixture  have  a  tendency  to 
crack  under  temperature  changes. 

For  waterproofing  vertical  surfaces  the 
Coating  is  applied  in  two  coats,  scratch  and 
finish,  giving  a  total  thickness  of  %"  to  1", 
while  for  horizontal  surfaces  the  Coating  is 
placed  in  one  operation  1"  to  2"  in  thickness. 
The  second  coat  for  vertical  surfaces  should 
follow  the  first  at  an  interval  not  exceeding  18 
hours  under  normal  conditions,  as  after  final 
set  has  taken  place  the  pores  of  the  Water,- 
proofed  Scratch  Coat,  being  negative  in  capil- 
larity, tend  to  repel  the  grouting  particles  of  the 
finish  coat,  resulting  in  a  lack  of  adhesion. 

Sometimes  the  architect  requires  the  Cement 
Coating  to  be  applied  over  the  exterior  face  of 
the  walls  and  below  the  pressure  resisting  slab 
of  the  floor,  in  disposition  similar  to  that  of  the 
Waterproofing  in  the  Membrane  Method.  This 


DETAILS  Of 
CEMENT    W4TEffPffOOF/NC 

upon  Ht3/ts  andrioors,  or>a 
orer  Co/umn  fb.otmga,  Pits,  ef-c 


Waterproofing    Contractor,     and    the    Water- 
proofing of  the  floor  carefully  joined  thereto. 

Plate  No.  1  shows  a  typical  view  of  work 
under  way.  In  the  background  a  portion  of  the 
wall  has  been  coated,  while  to  the  extreme  left 
the  surface  has  been  chipped  preparatory  to 
receiving  the  Coating.  The  Waterproofing  of 
the  pit  has  been  completed,  and  the  floor  and 
foundations  in  the  foreground  prepared  and 
cleaned  for  the  installation  of  same. 

In  Plate  No.  2  the  general  scheme  is  illus- 
trated for  carrying  the  Coating  continuously 
over  various  portions  of  the  building.  Par- 
ticular attention  is  called  to  the  necessity  of 
insulating  the  Waterproofing,  where  abnormal 
conditions  prevail.  Upon  boilers  and  wherever 
the  surface  will  be  exposed  to  intense  heat,  the 
Coating  is  depressed  some  six  or  eight  (6  or  8) 
inches  to  allow  the  placement  of  a  protective 
coat  of  sand  and  firebrick,  a  slab  of  cinder 
concrete  or  other  suitable  heat  resisting  me- 


Alternative  Me/ftoa 


Gump  Pit 


Bo'ilerP/t-shomrg 
Protection  to  Hbf&proof/ry 


fte/nforced  Concrete  Column  Steel  Co/umn 

with  Concrete  footing  #ith  (jri/lage  footing 


Plate  No.  2 


schenie  should  be  discouraged,  however,  as  the 
chief  advantages  of  the  Process  are  lost  thereby. 

The  correct  position  for  the  Waterproof 
Coating  is  upon  the  inside  faces  of  the  mem- 
bers; that  is,  the  Coating  should  be  carried  over 
the  interior  surfaces  of  the  exterior  walls  and 
the  upper  surface  of  the  lower  level  Floor  Slab, 
and  unless  some  special  interior  finish  is  desired 
the  Coating  should  ordinarily  be  left  exposed. 
It  is  troweled  smooth  to  an  even  surface,  and 
presents  a  Wall  Plaster  Finish  and  Cement  Floor 
Finish  of  highest  grade.  When  fully  cured,  the 
Coating  is  of  light  gray,  uniform  in  color  and 
pleasing  in  appearance,  but  if  preferred  it  may 
be  painted  to  the  shade  desired  by  employing 
strictly  specialized  Concrete  Coatings. 

The  Waterproofing  is  carried  continuously 
over  all  pits,  trenches,  etc.,  and  either  up  the 
sides  of  the  interior  columns  to  the  required 
heights  or  over  the  footings  and  up  around  the 
column  bases  to  join  with  the  Floor  Water- 
proofing. In  some  cases  where  the  construc- 
tion permits,  the  grillages  are  encased  in  Water- 
proofed Concrete  under  the  direction  of  the 


dium.  Plate  No.  3  portrays  the  Waterproofed 
Coating  depressed  for  this  purpose  just  prepara- 
tory to  the  installation  of  the  protective  coat. 

The  Coating  should  be  carried  under  all 
machine  foundations,  that  it  be  not  subjected 
to  excessive  vibration  and  that  its  continuity  be 
not  destroyed  by  the  anchor  bolts.  Where  cold 
water  pipes  enter  the  building,  the  Coating  can 
in  general  be  bonded  to  them  directly  by  care- 
fully removing  all  paint  and  roughening  the 
metal.  However,  where  hot  water  or  steam 
pipes  are  encountered,  metallic  collars  allowing 
for  the  lateral  movement  of  the  pipes  should  be 
supplied,  the  Coating  bonded  to  the  collar  and 
a  plastic  material  forced  into  the  void  between 
the  collar  and  the  pipe. 

The  matter  of  construction  joints  in  the 
Coating  between  different  day's  work  is  all- 
important,  as  these  will  develop  points  of  weak- 
ness unless  they  be  specially  treated.  A  fresh 
straight  edge  an  inch  within  the  edge  of  the 
completed  work  should  be  cut  and  this  thor- 
oughly grouted  to  aid  in  the  knitting  process. 
The  joining  should  never  be  placed  at  the 


juncture  between  the  wall  and  floor  or  at  angles 
in  walls  as  it  is  quite  impossible  to  adequately 
trowel  the  work  at  these  points. 

Since  the  Waterproofed  Coating  is  applied 
over  the  opposite  face  from  that  against  which 
the  pressure  is  exerted,  the  bond  with  the  under- 
lying base  must  be  absolute.  When  this  is  at- 
tained the  efficiency  of  the  Waterproof  Coating 
is  limited  in  its  resistance  to  hydrostatic  pressure 
only  by  the  strength  of  the  structural  member. 

When  the  bond  is  positive,  the  Waterproof 
Coating  forms  a  series  of  beams  or  arches  over 
the  minute  pores  of  the  masonry  and  effectively 
seals  the  water  in  their  separate  channels.  The 
span  of  the  beams  is  of  course  of  infinitesimal 
length  only,  and  thus  the  total  force  applied 
upon  each  individual  beam  and  the  consequent 
stresses  exerted  are  of  negligible  magnitude; 
also  it  is  quite  probable  that  the  pressure  is  lost 
to  a  large  extent  by  the  capillarity,  depending  for 
this  feature  upon  the  impermeability  of  the 


masonry  itself.  Only  so  long  as  the  particles  of 
water  are  confined  within  their  tiny  channels 
does  the  Cement  Coating  possess  real  efficiency, 
for  if  the  water  be  allowed  to  collect  in  a  con- 
tinuous sheet  behind  the  Waterproofing  (which 
may  occur  when  the  bond  is  imperfect)  the 
beams  become  of  appreciable  length  and  the 
coating  is  ruptured  or  forced  from  its  position. 

Considering  these  facts,  it  is  readily  per- 
ceived that  the  success  of  the  Process  is  de- 
pendent to  a  very  great  extent  upon  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  bond  existing  between  the  Water- 
proofing and  the  underlying  base.  Only  by 
virtue  of  this  bond  is  it  possible  to  attain  such 
excellent  results  by  applying  the  Waterproofing 
upon  the  interior  faces  of  the  members. 

The  fact  must  be  always  borne  in  mind  that 
the  actual  function  of  any  Waterproofing  agent 
is  to  make  the  masonry  impervious  and  that  it 
is  not  a  pressure  resisting  medium  of  appreci- 
able structural  strength.  Thus  if  a  wall  or  floor 


Plate  No.  3 

View  showing  depression  in  floor  for  protective  coat  under  boilers.    Alan  Realty  Building,  37th  Street  and  Broadway,  New  York  City. 
George  and  Edw.  Blum,  Architects.    Alan  Realty  Const.  Co.,  Owners  and  Builders. 


slab,  efficiently  Waterproofed,  be  subjected  to 
stresses  beyond  its  ultimate  strength,  the 
member  itself  will  fail  and  the  Waterproofing 
be  ruptured.  Obviously  this  failure  cannot  be 
attributed  to  any  fault  of  the  Waterproofing, 
and  in  the  design  of  a  structure  due  allowance 
must  be  made  for  adequate  strength  of  the 
members  to  resist  hydrostatic  pressure  when 
such  exists  or  is  likely  to  exist.  This  truth  is 
apparent,  but  in  the  mass  of  detail  that  enters 
into  the  design  of  a  structure  its  importance  is 
often  not  appreciated. 

The  control  of  water  during  the  progress  o/ 
construction  work  is  important  as  the  Coating, 
of  course,  is  of  such  nature  that  it  is  unable  to 
resist  hydrostatic  pressure  until  it  has  become 
fully  hardened.  Various  means  are  devised  for 
relieving  this  pressure,  and  no  little  ingenuity  is 
required  to  successfully  apply  the  Waterproof- 
ing against  members  through  which  water  is 
percolating. 

The  general  method  of  procedure  in  such 
cases  for  vertical  surfaces,  is  to  drill  holes 
through  the  wall  at  various  points  to  concen- 
trate the  flow  of  water.  Metallic  or  porcelain 
tubes  are  inserted,  protruding  several  inches 
from  the  interior  surface  of  the  wall  to  prevent 
the  water  from  flowing  over  the  fresh  Coating. 
Where  the  floor  is  being  simultaneously  Water- 
proofed, rubber  tubes  are  attached  to  the  me- 
tallic or  porcelain  ones  to  conduct  the  water 
directly  to  a  sump  pit. 

When  hydrostatic  pressure  exists,  before 
placing  the  slab  of  horizontal  members,  the 
best  method  is  to  construct  a  drainage  system 
so  that  this  pressure  can  be  temporarily  relieved. 
Excavation  should  be  made  some  eight  or  ten 


(8  or  10)  inches  below  the  lower  side  of  the  pro- 
posed slab  and  this  backfilled  with  cinders,  gravel 
or  similar  porous  material.  Drains  of  hollow  tile 
should  be  constructed  at  intervals,  converging 
to  sump  pits.  Pumping  or  bailing  should  be 
resorted  to  from  these  pits  until  the  concrete 
has  attained  its  initial  set,  and  then  again  for 
some  ten  to  fifteen  (10  to  15)  hours  after  the 
Waterproof  Coating  has  been  placed,  or  until  the 
latter  has  become  sufficiently  set  that  the  water 
will  overflow  the  sump  pit,  and  not  seep  through 
the  Coating,  as  in  this  latter  event  its  efficiency 
will  be  entirely  destroyed.  After  final  set  of  the 
Coating  has  obtained,  the  sump  pit  can  be 
sealed. 

As  may  be  ascertained  from  the  preceding 
discussion,  where  water  exists  during  construc- 
tion work,  the  walls  may  be  erected  regardless 
of  the  Waterproofing,  but  the  floor  slabs  should 
not  be  placed  until  proper  means  have  been 
taken  to  control  the  water. 

Where  this  scheme  is  not  followed  or  in  the 
case  of  the  repair  of  leaky  floors,  it  is  necessary 
to  install  drains  in  trenches.  These  should  be 
cut  entirely  through  the  members,  or  at  least 
to  such  depths  that  the  flow  will  be  concen- 
trated, and  that  concrete  of  sufficient  thickness 
to  resist  the  pressure  can  be  placed  above  the 
drains.  Both  of  these  requisites  must  be  ful- 
filled. Great  care  must  also  be  taken  that  the 
new  concrete  in  the  trenches  be  carefully  bonded 
with  the  old,  so  as  to  form  a  continuous  slab 
possessing  adequate  structural  strength. 

When  scientifically  undertaken  the  Cement 
Coating  Process  is  absolutely  positive  and  per- 
manent in  its  results  and  its  merits  as  a  Water- 
proofing medium  are  excelled  byjio  other  method. 


Cherry  Street  Wharf,  Philadelphia,  Pa.     Snare  &  Triest,  Contractors 

All  concrete  waterproofed  with  Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated. 


CHAPTER  NINE 


Practical  Application  of  Waterproofed 

Plaster  Coat 

Manner  in  which  Wall  should  be  Roughened — Illustration  of  Roughened  Wall — Why  a  %"  Water- 
proofed Plaster  Coat  is  Adequate — Roughening  of  Columns  and  Footings — Application  of  Water- 
proofed Plaster  Coat  to  Columns  and  Footings  to  Prevent  Electrolysis — Results  of  Plaster  Coat 
Waterproofing — A     Typical     Illustration. 


The  accompanying  illustration  (Figure  1) 
shows  the  thoroughness  with  which  a  concrete 
wall  is  usually  roughened  before  applying  a 
waterproofed  plaster  coat.  This  thorough  chip- 
ping and  roughening  insures  a  surface  which  will 
very  firmly  and  securely  hold  the  waterproofed 
plaster  coat.  The  importance  of  this  thorough 


preparation  of  the  wall  is  appreciated  when  it  is 
considered  that  a  waterproofed  plaster  coat  is 
applied  to  the  interior  of  the  wall  and  must  hold 
the  water  back  through  the  security  of  its  bond 
to  the  surface. 

With    the    exercise    of   reasonable    care    to 
roughen   the  surface  so  the  plaster   coat  will 


Figure  No.  1 


Figure  No.  2 


Figure  No.  3 


securely  bond,  it  will  positively  hold  back  the 
water  under  considerable  hydrostatic  head.  This 
is  probably  explained  by  the  fact  that  the  water 
in  comirig  through  the  wall,  follows  pores  and 
capillaries,  and  on  reaching  the  waterproofed 
plaster  coat  is  held  right  in  the  capillary,  and  its 
pressure  considerably  reduced  over  what  would 
be  expressed  if  the  water  could  circulate  and  col- 
lect in  considerable  area  and  volume  behind  the 
plaster  coat  treatment. 

Theoretically,  with  the  water  confined  to  the 
definite  pores  and  capillaries  in  the  concrete, 
even  a  three-quarter  inch  plaster  coat  represents 
a  considerable  thickness  in  comparison  to  the 
span  between  the  points  at  which  the  plaster 
coat  is  securely  bonded  and  fixed  to  the  wall  and 
the  area  in  which  the  water  is  present  in  the 
definitely  limited  and  defined  capillarity  of  the 
concrete. 

The  second  illustration  (Figure  2)  shows  the 
same  roughening  treatment  as  applied  to  a  col- 
umn and  footing.  The  waterproofed  plaster 
coat  is  coming  in  quite  general  use  for  enclos- 
ing footings  and  grillage  to  avoid  the  penetra- 
tion of  any  moisture  and  preventing  any  corrosion 
through  electrolysis.  The  essential  thing  in  the 
application  of  a  plaster  coat  in  such  a  condition 
is  to  be  certain  of  the  continuity  so  as  to  leave 
no  opening  for  any  moisture  to  work  itself  into 
the  mass.  This  illustration-also*shows  a  section 


in  the  concrete  apparently  defined  as  a  section 
between  old  and  new  work  where  the  bond  was 
not  satisfactory.  Observe  that  water  has  been 
percolating  through  this  crack  and  the  con- 
tractor has  inserted  bleed  pipes  to  concentrate 
the  flow  before  applying  the  plaster  coat. 

The  third  illustration  (Figure  3)  is  a  very 
typical  example  of  the  utility  and  appearance 
of  a  basement  which  has  been  protected  against 
any  moisture  or  dampness  by  the  application 
of  a  plaster  coat.  In  fact,  illustrations  1  and  2 
show  the  work  in  progress  on  the  same  operation 
that  is  shown  in  the  completed  form  in  Figure  3. 
It  is  interesting  to  observe  the  fine,  attractive 
appearance  of  the  walls  as  they  are  left  in  a 
smooth,  polished  condition  after  the  application 
of  the  waterproofed  plaster  coat.  Although  in 
the  illustration  shown,  the  walls  were  subject  to 
considerable  hydrostatic  pressure  so  that  pre- 
vious to  the  waterproofed  plaster  coat  water 
was  penetrating  and  percolating  through  the 
walls  at  various  points,  after  the  treatment  as 
shown  the  walls  are  absolutely  free  from  any 
moisture  or  dampness  and  the  basement  has 
nearly  the  same  practical  utility  as  any  other 
floor. 

Architects  and  engineers  will  be  particularly 
interested  in  the  features  of  this  waterproofed 
plaster  coat  treatment  on  account  of  its  economy 
and  general  effectiveness. 


St.  Paul  Public  Library,  St.  Paul,  Minn.     E.  D.  Litchneld,  Architect 

All  foundation  work  waterproofed  with  Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated. 


CHAPTER  TEN 


Relieving  Pressure  Before  Application  of  a 
Waterproofed  Plaster  Coat 

Method  of  Draining — Bleed  Pipes— Siphon— Central  Sumps— Complete  Work  of  Drainage- 
Bleeding  Wall  to  eliminate  Slow  Seepage— Practical  Illustration  of  Bleed  Pipes— Results  of  failure 

to  Relieve  Pressure. 


In   undertaking   a   waterproofing   operation  t 
by  means  of  a  waterproofed  plaster  coat,  it  is 
very  necessary  to  provide  for  the  free  flow  of 
any  water  that  is  present  either  under  seepage 
or  hydrostatic  pressure. 

In  order  to  get  a  firm  and  secure  bond  of 
the  plaster  coat  it  is  essential  that  the  surface 
be  free  from  the  movement  of  any  water. 
Even  moisture  under  the  slightest  seepage 
pressure,  the  occurrence  of  which  is  hardly  dis- 
cernible, will,  when  concentrated  back  of  a 
waterproofed  plaster  coat,  weaken  the  bond 
and  cause  unsatisfactory  results. 

In  undertaking  an  operation,  the  method  to 
be  followed  must  be  determined  as  appropriate 
to  the  existing  conditions.  Attention  is  first 
directed  to  the  treatment  of  the  walls. 


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2- Drcxin  Tile   in  Trench""^ 
Covered   with  Cinders 

Figure  1. 


Figure  No.  1  illustrates  a  section  of  a  wall 
showing  the  method  of  draining  that  would 
generally  be  followed.  To  relieve  the  seepage  or 
flow  of  water  through  the  wall  on  the  left  of  the 
figure,  a  hole  has  been  drilled  continuously 
through  the  wall  in  which  has  been  inserted  a 
pipe  which  is  then  made  continuous  with  a  sump 
constructed  in  the  center  of  the  excavation. 
Any  sections  of  the  wall  showing  the  presence  of 
sufficient  moisture  to  give  any  movement  or 


'Cover-ing 
ov«r  Trench 


Figure  2. 

flow  must  be  drained  by  means  of  a  "bleed"  pipe 
before  the  plaster  coat  application  can  be  under- 
taken. 

Figure  No.  1  also  illustrates  the  erection  of  a 
two-inch  drain  tile  in  a  trench  around  the  foot 
of  the  wall,  which  is  constructed  to  grade  so  as  to 
empty  into  the  sump  where  the  water  is  relieved 
by  means  of  the  syphon  pump. 

Figure  No.  2  is  a  plan  of  the  same  condition 
illustrated  in  Figure  1.  Observe  that  two  bleed 
pipes  have  been  inserted  in  the  wall  which  are 
connected  with  a  syphon  and  the  presence  of 
the  drain  tile,  which  is  covered  with  cinders  and 
gravel  running  continuously  around  the  outside 
and  connected  to  the  central  sump. 


,1    Coating    on  Wai  la 


•2Coatir>jj  on  Floor 


inTile  in  Trench, 
Covered   with  Cinders 


Figure  3. 


With  the  flow  of  water  through  the  wall  con- 
centrated in  the  sump,  the  surface  is  then  in 
condition  for  application  of  the  plaster  coat. 
The  bleed  pipe  should  be  left  in  operation  for  a 
matter  of  ten  days  to  two  weeks  in  order  to 
insure  proper  hardening  of  the  plaster  coat 
before  it  is  required  to  withstand  the  pressure. 

Figure  3  illustrates  the  completed  work. 
With  the  water  draining  freely  into  the  sump 
and  then  removed  by  the  syphon,  the  concrete 
base  can  be  constructed  and  the  concrete  take  its 
full  normal  hardness  without  any  possible  injury 
of  water  accumulating  and  seeping  up  through 
the  soft  concrete  mass.  The  floor  is  finished  with 
a  waterproofed  plaster  coat,  which  is  made  con- 
tinuous with  the  applications  on  the  side  walls. 

After  the  sump  has  been  kept  in  operation 
for  a  period  sufficient  to  allow  for  the  proper 
hardening  and  bonding  of  the  plaster  coat,  the 
pump  can  be  stopped  and  the  cap  screwed  on 
top  of  the  sump  to  close  it.  The  water  pressure 
is  then  entirely  resisted  and  held  back  by  the 
waterproofed  plaster  coat. 

Figure  4  illustrates  a  section  of  brick  wall 
through  which  a  bleed  pipe  has  been  driven  and 
connected  with  a  rubber  hose  to  a  central  sump. 
This  illustration  is  particularly  interesting,  as  it 
shows  the  result  of  having  undertaken  to  apply 
a  plaster  coat  to  a  surface  where  there  was  a  slow 
seepage  of  water.  While  to  the  naked  eye  the 
movement  was  hardly  discernible,  as  soon  as  the 


Figure  4. 

green  plaster  coat  was  applied  it  began  to  be 
carried  down  on  the  thin  film  of  moisture  that 
slowly  but  positively  accumulated  back  of  the 
plaster  coat  and  separated  it  from  its  bond  and 


Figure  5. 


contact  with  the  surface.  It  was  necessary  to 
insert  the  bleed  pipe  and  concentrate  the  flow 
of  the  water  before  the  plaster  coat  could  be 
applied  safely. 


Figure  6. 


Figures  5  and  8  are  unusually  good  illustrations 
of  the  use  of  bleed  pipes  in  actual  practical  opera- 
tions. The  walls  to  be  treated  showed  evidences 
of  the  movement  of  considerable  moisture.  The 
holes  were  drilled  into  the  walls  in  which  the 
bleed  pipes  as  shown  in  the  illustrations  were 
placed  and  only  after  the  water  pressure  was 
relieved  by  the  bleed  pipes  was  the  application 
of  the  waterproofed  plaster  coat  undertaken. 

After  the  thorough  hardening  of  the  water- 
proofed plaster  coat,  the  bleed  pipes  are  broken, 
off  and  closed  by  driving  in  a  wooden  plug. 

Figure  6  is  a  typical  illustration  of  the  result 
that  usually  follows  when  care  is  not  taken  to 
relieve  the  pressure.  The  accumulation  of  the 
moisture  back  of  the  plaster  coat  naturally  works 
itself  into  the  plaster  coat,  destroying  the  density 
and  compactness  of  the  mechanical  pressure  used 
in  application  and  defeats  the  object  of  obtaining 
a  thoroughly  continuous  and  dense  application. 

Figure  7  is  a  little  closer  view  of  Figure  6 
showing  the  effect  of  the  moisture  and  dampness 
that  is  flowingjand  seeping  through  the  imper- 
fectly applied  waterproofed  plaster  coat. 


Figure  7 


Figure  8 


CHAPTER  ELEVEN 

Integral  Waterproofing  a  Consistent  Principle 

of  Engineering 

By  R.  Alfred  Plumb 

The  use  of  the  Safety  Factor  in  Engineering  Design — Its  application  to  Waterproofing — Engineer- 
ing not  an  exact  Science — Safety  Factor  in  Reality  Factor  of  Ignorance — Definition  of  Exact 
Sciences — Illustrations — Method  of  Procedure  in  Exact  Sciences — How  Engineering  differs  from 
Exact  Science — Why  the  Factor  of  Safety  is  necessary  in  Engineering — Concrete  offers  greatest 
Variation  of  all  Building  Materials — Why  it  does  so — Why  the  Safety  Factor  Principle  is  par- 
ticularly applicable  to  Concrete  Construction — Direct  bearing  of  this  to  Waterproofing  of  Con- 
crete— Concluding  Review  and  Discussion. 


INTRODUCTORY  NOTE:  The  presentation  of  the 
use  of  integral  waterproofing  in  waterproofed 
concrete  as  an  action  consistent  with  the  usual 
performance  in  employing  a  "factor  of  safety" 
(or  a  "factor  of  ignorance")  is  a  direct  and 
thoroughly  logical  application.  Integral  water- 
proofing produces  waterproofed  concrete  and 
provides  qualities  for  conserving  the  strength 
of  the  concrete  and  protecting  it  against  dis- 
integration. Accordingly  it  should  have  a  very 
significant  consideration  as  a  "factor  of  safety" 
(or  as  a  "factor  of  ignorance")  as  it  is  so  closely 
and  directly  associated  with  the  subject  of  the 
strength  and  stability  of  concrete. 


The  correct  and  practical  present  conception 
of  the  use  of  a  factor  of  safety  is  a  necessity, 
due  to  the  fact  that  engineering  has  not  de- 
veloped to  the  basis  of  a  true  science  and  does 
not  embrace  concise  knowledge  of  the  laws  of 
natural  forces  and  their  application  to  the 
strength  and  resistance  of  materials.  Engineer- 
ing is  really  more  of  an  empirical  consideration 
of  practical  observations  and  results. 

If  the  engineer  was  in  position  from  his 
knowledge  to  proceed  with  perfect  definiteness 
of  the  strength  of  materials  and  the  accuracy 
of  workmanship,  engineering  in  conception 
and  practice  would  become  a  definite  science. 
It  would  then  be  entirely  superfluous  to  con- 
sider the  use  of  any  excess  of  materials  over 
what  was  very  definitely  and  positively  known 
to  be  sufficient  to  meet  the  requirements  of 
any  particular  structure.  Actually  the  term  and 
practice  involved  in  the  consideration  of  factor 
of  safety  would  become  obsolete.  However 
the  factor  of  safety  may  be  more  literally  inter- 
preted a  factor  of  ignorance,  due  to  the  fact 
that  our  present  engineering  practices  are  only 
reasonably  accurate  methods  of  approximation. 


It  is  such  subjects  as  Chemistry  and  Astron- 
omy that  present  the  truer  conception  of  an 
exact  science.  Chemistry  as  a  science  involves 
a  very  definite  knowledge  of  the  various  elements 
that  compose  matter  and  the  laws  which  regulate 
the  reactions  and  the  relationships  of  these 
various  elements  to  each  other.  The  chemist 
knows  by  the  definite,  concise  knowledge  of  the 
science  that  when  two  or  more  of  the  established 
elements  are  brought  together,  that  certain 
definite  changes  will  take  place  and  that  such 
reactions  will  be  in  accordance  with  very  defin- 
itely predetermined  scientific  facts. 

Astronomy  is  even  a  better  illustration  of  an 
exact  science.  Due  to  the  mathematical  accur- 
acy with  which  the  knowledge  of  this  subject 
has  been  developed,  the  position  of  the  sun,  the 
moon,  and  the  stars  are  determinable  for  almost 
any  time.  The  position  of  the  sun  one  year  from 
today  is  not  a  matter  of  empirical  deduction  or 
of  approximate  determination  but  a  fact  which 
can,  from  the  conciseness  of  Astronomy  as  a 
science,  be  precisely  determined  by  mathemati- 
cal calculations. 

It  is  when  any  subject  reaches  that  point  of 
development  where  its  laws  can  be  determined 
with  mathematical  precision,  and  then  can  be 
accurately  expressed  in  practice,  that  the  par- 
ticular subject  reaches  a  really  true  scientific 
basis. 

While  engineering  design  is  based  on  mathe- 
matical calculations,  there  are  so  many  uncer- 
tainties involved  in  the  qualities  of  materials 
and  workmanship  that  engineering  cannot,  when 
considered  in  relationship  to  its  practical  execu- 
tion, be  accepted  as  mathematically  concise. 

By  laboratory  tests,  it  is  possible  to  deter- 
mine the  strength  and  qualities  of  any  specific 
material  under  ideal  conditions,  but  the  engineer 


must  substantially  discount  the  laboratory 
tests  to  anticipate  the  variations  in  the  quality 
of  such  materials  when  used  in  actual,  practical 
construction. 

In  design,  the  engineer,  while  he  can  be  quite 
confident  of  the  accuracy  of  his  knowledge  of  a 
few  of  the  simpler  stresses,  such  as  direct  tension 
and  compression  in  members  subject  to  flexure, 
there  are  so  many  complicated  stresses  that  will 
develop  that  the  engineer  does  not  understand 
that  he  is  compelled  to  use  materials  at  unit 
stresses,  much  less  than  their  ultimate  strength, 
in  order  to  provide  for  the  uncertainties  in  stresses 
that  he  does  not  understand. 

For  instance,  in  any  beam  or  girder  there  are 
developed  such  additional  stresses  as  horizontal 
and  vertical  shear  and  diagonal  tension  and 
compression  stresses  which  vary  so  much  in 
different  parts  of  their  members,  and  combine 
themselves  in  such  ways,  that  the  engineer  at 
times  is  unable  to  actually  determine  their 
direction  of  action,  much  less  being  able  to 
calculate  with  any  accuracy  even  their  approxi- 
mate intensity. 

It  follows  logically  that  the  real,  practical 
conception  of  the  "factor  of  safety"  is  more  a 
"factor  of  ignorance,"  as  the  engineer  is  required 
to  use  excessive  amounts  of  materials  in  order  to 
insure  protection  against  variation  in  the  quality 
of  materials,  in  the  uncertainties  in  workmanship 
and  the  actual  lack  of  concise  knowledge  of  the 
intensity  and  direction  of  the  stresses  that  will 
develop  in  the  structure. 

The  engineer  can  be  concise  and  accurate  in 
the  mathematical  calculations  of  his  design,  but 
he  cannot  extend  the  same  mathematical  pre- 


cision to  the  examination  of  the  interior  of  every 
piece  of  material  that  enters  into  the  construc- 
tion to  determine  the  extent  of  flaws  and  im- 
perfections that  are  likely  to  be  present.  It  is 
recognition  by  the  engineer  of  the  fact  that  he 
cannot  make  this  internal  examination  of  the 
structure  of  the  materials  that  compels  him  to 
figure  the  unit  stress  of  any  material  at  a  value 
which  is  only  a  fraction  of  the  full  ultimate 
strength. 

In  design  no  engineer  will  make  a  building 
stronger  than  he  believes  will  actually  be  re- 
quired, but  he  uses  the  lower  stresses  because 
his  lack  of  knowledge  in  the  variation  in  con- 
ditions involving  materials,  workmanship,  and 
stresses  is  such  that  he  dare  not  go  further.  The 
engineer  often  finds  himself  groping  in  the  dark, 
and  occasionally  when  he  becomes  a  little  too 
confident  in  the  uniformity  of  materials,  a  little 
too  courageous  in  depending  on  the  human 
element  of  workmanship,  a  little  too  certain  in 
his  ability  to  concisely  figure  strains  and  stresses, 
he  is  confronted  with  a  Quebec  disaster  that  is 
sure  to  intimidate  and  to  bring  greater  emphasis 
on  the  necessity  of  a  care  and  caution  in  pro- 
ceeding on  facts  that  are  really  positively  and 
definitely  known. 

It  is  that  recognition  in  the  mind  of  the 
engineer  that,  between  the  accuracy  of  his  cal- 
culation of  stresses  that  are  known  and  the 
expression  of  his  design  in  actual  material  form, 
there  are  so  many  uncertainties,  so  many  qual- 
ities of  which  he  is  uncertain  that  he  realizes  he 
cannot  draw  his  design  closer  to  the  actual 
ultimate  but  must  provide  excessive  materials 
to  compensate  for  what  he  does  not  know  and 
what  he  cannot  accurately  determine. 


A— Represents  standard  practice  in 

steel    work     allowing    a    safety 

factor  of  four. 
B — Represents  a  beam  which  would 

carry  the  load  assuming    ulti^ 

mate  strength. 


A  —Represents  standard  practice 
in  a  concrete  column  under 
definite  load,  providing  a  fac- 
tor of  safety  of  four. 

B— Represents  a  column 
which,  at  ultimate 
strength,  will  carry 
the  same  load. 


Illustrating  the  use  of  the  "safety  factor"  in  general  construction  work. 


The  amount  of  space  that  has  been  given  in 
the  foregoing  to  a  discussion  of  the  conception 
of  "Factor  of  Safety"  is  intended  to  establish 
in  the  reader's  mind  the  general  extent  to  which 
the  engineer  recognizes  his  limitations  in  engi- 
neering as  a  science,  and  must  secure  and 
protect  himself  on  things  he  does  not  know  by 
use  of  materials  figured  at  ultimate  stresses 
only  representing  a  small  percentage  of  the  actual 
ultimate  value. 

The  effort  has  been,  not  so  particularly  to 
give  the  reader  information  that  he  does  not 
know,  but  bring  to  his  mind  in  concise,  defined 
perspective  the  exact  reasoning  why  a  factor  of 
safety  is  used.  These  facts  are  not  theory  but 
absolute  practice. 

Now,  considering  the  various  types  of  con- 
structive materials,  what  one  stands  out  most 
specifically  as  offering  the  biggest  opportunity 
for  variation  in  actual  construction?  The 
answer  is — Concrete. 

The  reader  recognizes  steel  as  a  product  of 
thoroughly  standardized  manufacture,  yet,  due 
to  lack  of  confidence  in  what  is  actually  known 
about  steel  and  what  it  will  do  under  various 
conditions  of  stress,  the  engineer  employs  from 
two  and  a  half  to  four  times  more  than  if  figured 
at  full,  ultimate  value. 

Similarly  with  wood,  a  product  of  Nature's 
laboratory,  the  engineer  has  not  sufficient 
confidence  in  his  knowledge  of  its  uniformity  or 
of  its  behavior  under  various  loadings  but  what 
he  provides  from  seven  to  twelve  times  more 
actual  material  than  would  be  required  if  it  was 
figured  on  the  basis  of  its  ultimate  strength. 

If  the  engineer's  confidence  in  steel  and  wood 
and  materials  of  a  similar  type  is  so  limited, 
what  can  be  his  actual  confidence  in  a  material 
like  concrete  with  a  vastly  greater  opportunity 
for  variations?  In  concrete  there  is  fluctuation 
that  is  associated  with  different  brands  of  cement, 
there  are  the  differences  in  the  time  of  setting, 
there  is  the  variation  in  the  fineness  and  the 
strength,  etc.  In  the  aggregate,  there  is  prob- 
ably the  widest  variation  of  any  type  of  raw 
material  entering  into  the  actual  finished  con- 
struction. It  not  only  varies  in  different  sec- 
tions but  in  the  same  locality  there  is  consider- 
able difference.  In  one  section  of  the  country, 
a  crushed  rock  is  used  in  preparing  concrete  and 
there  is  associated  with  it  a  great  deal  of  fluctua- 
tion due  to  the  inherent  nature  of  the  rock  itself. 
In  other  sections  gravel  is  employed  with  a  wide 


fluctuation  in  its  granularmetric  composition. 
In  fact  almost  unlimited  comment  could  be 
made  bearing  on  the  varieties  of  aggregates 
employed  in  concrete. 

Further,  there  is  the  influence  on  the  finished 
concrete  by  the  method  of  mixing,  the  amount 
of  water  used,  the  time  of  mixing,  the  method  of 
placing,  spading,  tamping,  curing,  etc. 

It  requires  little  comment  to  bring  to  the 
reader's  mind,  in  very  forceful  vision,  that  when 
he  is  proceeding  to  figure  a  factor  of  safety  as  a 
method  of  protecting  against  the  wide  uncertain- 
ties and  unknowns  of  structural  materials,  there 
is  hardly  any  material  that  requires  the  same 
attention  or  the  same  provision  for  factor  of 
safety  as  concrete. 

It  is  the  association  of  the  two  facts  that  a 
factor  of  safety  is  employed  as  a  protection  and 
a  security  against  the  uncertainty  in  materials, 
workmanship,  etc.,  and  in  these  qualities  of 
indefiniteness  and  uncertainty  that  concrete 
stands  out  pre-eminently,  that  we  conclude  that 
any  provision  that  will  add  any  definiteness  or 
positiveness  to  the  production  of  a  waterproofed 
result  in  concrete  should  be  employed  and  figured 
as  a  reasonable,  economical  factor  of  safety. 

It  is  occasionally  suggested  that  by  a  scien- 
tific grading  of  aggregate  a  density  can  be  pro- 
duced in  concrete  that  makes  it  impermeable. 
The  interesting  part  of  this  statement  is  the 
word  "scientific."  The  correctness  of  the  asser- 
tion is  to  be  granted  with  the  provision  of  the 
possibility  of  an  execution  of  the  scientific 
requirement.  It  is  exactly  the  fact  that  concrete 
among  structural  materials  does  not  permit  a 
scientific  expression  in  result  that  this  statement 
falls  far  short  of  any  real  significance.  To  accept 
such  a  possibility  is  to  accept  conditions  prevail- 
ing in  engineering  practice  that  will  enable  us  to 
use  ultimate  stresses  rather  than  only  fractions 
of  ultimate  value  in  practical  construction. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of  the  discussion  of  this 
chapter  to  show  by  analytical  consideration  that 
it  is  a  physical  impossibility  to  actually  obtain 
waterproofed  concrete  by  scientific  grading,  but 
simply  to  bring  to  the  engineer's  mind  the 
positive  inconsistency  of  conceiving  a  thing  in 
his  mind  as  a  possibility  which  he  cannot  apply 
in  any  other  phase  or  feature  of  engineering 
practice.  The  engineer  today  who  recommends 
a  scientific  grading  of  aggregate  as  a  method  of 
producing  impermeable  concrete  must  in  the 
same  breath  endorse  the  use  of  ultimate  stresses 
in  steel,  wood,  and  other  structural  materials. 


PART  II 
Discussion  of  Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste, 

Concentrated 


Nature  of  Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated — How  Used— Method  of  Incorporating 

Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated,  in  the  Concrete — Its  Economy — Colloidal  Nature 

of  Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,   Concentrated — Effect  on   Concrete — General  Directions  for 

Use — Table  of  Quantities — Illustrations — Reports — Testimonial  Letters — Prominent  Users. 


NY  integral  waterproofing  compound  to  successfully  serve  its 
purpose  must  have  the  following  characteristics: 

It  should  be  simple  to  use.  It  should  readily  mix  with  water, 
as  water  must  be  its  distributor.  It  should  be  so  economical  as  to 
permit  of  general  use.  Its  effect  must  be  permanent.  Finally  it 
must  be  of  such  a  chemical  composition  that  the  strength  of  the 
finished  structure  shall  not  be  one  particle  lessened  by  the  possible 
increase. 

Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated,  is  the  one  product 
which  effectively  meets  all  of  these  requirements.  Developed  by 
many  years  of  experiments  and  now  tested  and  proved  by  successful 
use  in  thousands  of  structures,  it  is  recognized  by  engineers  as  the 
one  standard  product  for  waterproofing  by  the  integral  method. 

The  following  pages  set  forth  the  nature  and  qualities  of  Truscon 
Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated,  and  serve  to  explain  the  extra- 
ordinary success  this  product  has  gained. 


The  Truscon  Laboratories,  Detroit,  Mich. 


A.  Krolik  &  Co.  Building,  Detroit,  Michigan 
Albert  Kahn,  Architect,  Ernest  Wilby,  Associate 

All  concrete  below  grade  line  waterproofed  with  Truscon  Waterproof- 
ing   Paste,  Concentrated.      The    Detroit    River   is    directly  back 
of  the  building. 


Simple  to  Use 

The  method  of   using    TRUSCON  Water- 
proofing Paste,   Concentrated,  is  the  simplest 
possible.     All  that  is  required  is  to  add  this 
Paste  to  the  water  which  is  used  to  temper  the 
dry  mixture  of  cement,  sand,  stone,  etc.     No 
other  method  is  so  easy,  rapid  and  convenient. 
When  powder  compounds  are  used   for  water- 
proofing they  must  be  mixed  with  the  dry  cement. 
This  operation  involves  considerable  delay,  as  well 
as    extra   labor   cost.     By  the   TRUSCON    method 
there  is  no  hindrance  to  rapid,  economical  work. 

Readily  Mixed  with  the  Gauging 
Water 

Because  it  comes  in  paste  form,  TRUSCON 
Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated,  mixes 
very  readily  with  water,  forming  a  milk-like 
solution.  It  distributes  itself  evenly  throughout 
the  water  and  hence  is  carried  uniformly  to 
every  part  of  the  mortar  or  concrete. 

To  produce  a  perfect  mixture  between  ordinary 
oils  and  water  is  of  course  impossible.  It  is  for  this 
reason  that  most  of  the  dry  powders  offered  for 
waterproofing  purposes  are  more  or  less  inefficient, 
for  they  consist  of  chemically  insoluble  soaps  with 
hydrated  lime,  and  such  metallic  salts  of  fatty  acids, 
as  is  well  known,  are  naturally  repellent  to  water. 
Consequently,  these  waterproofing  compounds  do 
not  become  evenly  distributed  throughout  the  con- 


crete and  thus  they  cannot  fulfill  their  purpose  of 
waterproofing  it.  This  result  comes  partly  because 
of  the  difficulty  of  mixing  such  dry  compounds 
with  the  cement.  However,  even  were  a  perfect 
mixture  obtainable,  nevertheless  the  waterproofing 
compounds,  being  lighter  than  the  cement,  sand, 
etc.,  naturally  float  toward  the  top  of  the  mixture 
as  soon  as  the  water  is  added. 

The  use  of  a  dry  powder  for  waterproofing 
purposes  involves  a  difficulty  such  as  would  follow 
an  attempt  to  evenly  mix  and  hold  in  distribution 
finely  pulverized  cork.  It  is  obvious  that  when  the 
mass  is  very  heavy  and  dry  the  cork  is  entrapped 
and  mechanically  held,  but  as  soon  as  any  fluidity 
is  produced,  as  by  the  addition  of  water,  the  cork, 
due  to  its  repellent  nature,  naturally  works  itself 
to  the  top  of  the  mass,  entirely  destroying  the  origi- 
nal distribution. 

Because  TRUSCON  Waterproofing  Paste, 
Concentrated,  readily  mixes  with  the  gauging 
water  and  thus  becomes  evenly  distributed 
throughout  the  concrete,  its  waterproofing  qual- 
ities safeguard  every  part  of  the  concrete.  There 
can  be  no  weak  spots  where  leaks  may  develop. 
Moreover,  its  protection  against  water  does  not 
weaken  with  age  but  on  the  contrary  becomes 
stronger. 

Most  Economical  Waterproofing 
Compound 

A  lower  cost  results  from  the  use  of  TRUSCON 
Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated,  than  with 
any  other  integral  waterproofing  treatment. 
This  is  the  case  because  of  the  concentrated 
nature  of  the  Paste  and  because  it  contains  no 
fillers  like  hydrated  lime,  clay,  silica,  etc.,  which 


Notre  Dame  Cathedral,  New  York  City 

Cross  &  Cross,  Architects 

Waterproofing    &    Construction    Co.,    Waterproofing    Contractors 

Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,   Concentrated,  used  to  Waterproof 

Concrete  Work 


Rheinstein  &  Haas  Building,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
Starrett  &  Van  Vleck,  Architects 
Rheinstein  &  Hass,  Contractors 


increase  the  bulk  of  many  other  waterproofing 
compounds  without  raising  their  efficiency.  In 
TRUSCON  Waterproofing  Paste,  Concen- 
trated, only  materials  of  the  greatest  water- 
proofing value  are  used;  and  hence  this  product, 
even  though  its  cost  were  considerably  higher, 
would  remain  the  most  economical  to  use. 

The  wide  recognition  of  TRUSCON  Water- 
proofing Paste,  Concentrated,  as  the  standard 
product  for  the  integral  method  of  waterproof- 
ing, has  come  because  it  combines  the  qualities 
of  simplicity  and  efficiency,  together  with  the 
lowest  unit  of  cost.  Thus,  TRUSCON  Water- 
proofing Paste,  Concentrated,  has  brought 
about  the  more  general  use  of  waterproofing  in 


concrete.  Because  of  its  low  cost  its  use  has 
extended,  not  only  to  structures  where  water- 
proofing was  absolutely  essential,  but  also  to 
work  where  waterproofing  was  merely  desirable. 

Colloidal  in  Composition 

Portland  cement  mortar,  as  is  well  known,  is 
partly  waterproof.  This  results  because  of  a 
jelly-like  or  colloidal  substance  in  the  cement, 
which  tends  to  fill  up  the  pores.  TRUSCON 
Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated,  is  itself 
colloidal  in  nature ;  hence  it  completes  the  water- 
proofing tendency  of  the  cement  by  entirely 
filling  the  pores  in  the  mortar  or  concrete.  It 
thus  protects  fully  against  the  softening  ten- 
dency of  water  and  does  this  not  only  efficiently 
but  permanently. 

Careful  study  of  those  chemical  and  physical 
processes  which  take  place  when  Portland  cement 
is  mixed  with  water  has  made  it  evident  that  to  give 
satisfactory  results  a  waterproofing  compound  must 
necessarily  be  of  a  colloidal  nature.  The  process  of 


Statler  Hotel,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

Mauran,  Russell  &  Crowell  and  Geo.  B.  Post  &  Sons, 
Associated  Architects 

Construction  work  below  grade  waterproofed  with  Truscon  Water- 
proofing Paste,   Concentrated. 


Rochester  Sewage  Disposal  Plant, 
Department   of  Engineering,  City  of  Rochester,   Engineers 

C.  Arthur  Poole,  Supervising  Engineer 

Concrete  Waterproofed  with  Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste, 
Concentrated 

setting  and  hardening  of  Portland  cement  mortar 
and  concrete  is  not  alone  a  process  of  solution, 
hydration  and  recrystallization,  but  is  supplemented 
by  the  formation  of  a  colloidal  substance  which 
surrounds  and  protects  the  crystals  of  cement  that 
bind  the  particles  of  sand  and  stone  together. 

The  partial  degree  of  waterproofness  which  is 
characteristic  of  Portland  cement  mortar  and  con- 
crete is  due  entirely  to  the  presence  of  its  colloidal 
constituent.  In  its  absence  there  would  be  no 
medium  to  protect  the  crystallization  against  the 
action  of  water  which  would  tend  to  gradually 
soften,  dissolve  and  disintegrate  the  mass  when 
subjected  to  actual  practical  exposure. 

This  colloidal  substance,  however,  is  never 
formed  in  sufficient  quantity  to  entirely  fill  out 
all  the  voids  in  the  mass,  and  it  is  accordingly  the 
function  of  an  efficient  integral  waterproofing  not 
only  to  intensify  the  formation  of  the  colloid  origi- 
nating from  the  cement  itself,  but  to  add  a  sufficient 


quantity  of  colloid  so  as  to  fill  out  the  voids  and 
impart  to  the  concrete  sufficient  density  to  render  it 
absolutely  impermeable. 

It  is  a  further  essential  of  an  efficient  integral 
waterproofing  that  the  body  not  only  be  originally 
colloidal,  but  have  the  property  of  indefinitely  re- 
taining its  colloidal  development.  Such  absorbent 
colloids  as  clay,  hydrated  lime,  aluminum  hy- 
droxide, etc.,  which  have  been  used  with  very  ques- 
tionable success,  have  been  found  in  time  to  dehy- 
drate, losing  their  colloidal  development,  and  are 
very  slow  and  inactive  in  reverting  to  the  colloidal 
condition.  This  behavior  undoubtedly  explains  the 
very  inconsistent  results  obtained  with  products  of 
this  character,  as  in  some  cases  where  conditions 
are  particularly  favorable  for  maintaining  the 
colloidal  condition,  results  will  be  quite  satisfactory, 
but  generally  where  there  is  any  opportunity  for  the 
drying  out  of  the  colloid,  the  waterproofness  is 
destroyed. 


Cornell  Stadium 

Gibb  &  Waltz,  Architects 

Truscon   Waterproofing   Paste,    Concentrated,    used    throughout 
all  Concrete 


Concrete  Stand  Pipe  Singson  Water  Works,  Philippine  Islands 

All    concrete    waterproofed    with    Truscon    Waterproofing    Paste, 
Concen  tra  ted. 


Not  Weakening  the  Concrete 

The  strength  of  concrete  ought  not,  of 
course,  to  be  sacrificed  for  waterproofness.  The 
favor  with  which  TRUSCON  Waterproofing 
Paste,  Concentrated,  has  always  been  received 
by  engineers,  follows  partly  because,  far  from 
reducing  the  strength  of  concrete,  this  product 
enhances  and  maintains  it.  It  does  so  because, 
as  already  explained,  it  protects  the  concrete 
against  the  disintegrating  action  of  water. 

Compounds  containing  large  percentages  of  free 
fats,  soluble  soaps,  active  silicic  acid,  etc.,  invariably 
reduce  the  strength  of  concrete  materially,  for  these 
products  react  seriously  with  the  constituents  of  the 
cement  and  interfere  with  the  normal  process  of 
hardening  that  is  essential  to  develop  the  full 
strength. 


A  Record  of  Success 

Even  at  its  introduction  TRUSCON  Water- 
proofing Paste,  Concentrated,  was  recognized 
as  possessing  qualities  that  should  make  it  most 
efficient  and  satisfactory.  Now  that  its  success 
has  been  demonstrated  in  a  practical  way  by 
its  use  in  great  numbers  of  important  and  ex- 
tensive operations,  its  reliability  has  become  a 
matter  of  general  recognition  among  engineers 
and  contractors.  The  range  of  work  upon  which 
it  has  been  used  is  consequently  very  wide;  in- 
deed, it  embraces  practically  the  entire  field  of 
concrete  construction,  including  foundations, 
dams,  tunnels,  reservoirs,  tanks,  floors  and  all 
similar  structures.  The  illustrations  and  letters 
in  this  book  refer  to  a  few  examples  of  these 
uses. 

The  simple  method  of  employing  TRUSCON 
Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated,  is  defined 
on  succeeding  pages  in  the  form  of  general 
specifications.  Upon  request  special  specifica- 
tions will  be  furnished  showing  in  detail  the 
method  of  using  this  product  in  the  case  of  any 
unusual  waterproofing  problem. 


Ford  Service  Building,  Long  Island  City,  N.  Y. 

Concrete  Foundations  and  Floors  Waterproofed  with  Truscon 
Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated 


Directions  for  Using  TRUSCON 
Waterproofing    Paste — Concentrated 

Only  ordinary  care  and  reasonable  attention 
are  necessary  to  obtain  the  very  best  results 
with  this  product. 

In  the  general  integral  waterproofing  of  mass 
concrete,  TRUSCON  Waterproofing  Paste, 
Concentrated,  should  be  employed  in  the  pro- 
portion of  one  (1)  part  of  Paste  to  thirty-six  (36) 
parts  of  water,  which  provides  the  most  eco- 
nomical waterproofing  available. 


Federal  Reserve  Bank,  Atlanta,  C  a. 
A.  Ten  Eyck  Brown,  Architect,  W.  C.  Spiker,  Structural  Engineer 

Allen  J.  Krebs,  Contractor 

All  concrete  sub-terra  construction  and  floors  waterproofed  through 
with  Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated. 

For  conditions  that  are  particularly  extreme, 
due  to  small  mass  or  especially  high  pressure, 
the  Concentrated  Paste  should  be  used  in  the 
proportion  of  one  (1)  part  of  Paste  to  twenty- 
four  (24)  parts  of  water,  but  under  average 
conditions  of  waterproofing  the  Paste  can  be 
employed  in  the  proportion  of  one  to  thirty - 
six  (1:36)  as  previously  recommended. 

For  a  waterproofed  cement  plaster  coat,  the 
Concentrated  Paste  should  be  employed  in  the 
proportion  of  one  (1)  part  of  Paste  to  eighteen 
(18)  parts  of  water. 

The  best  results  are  obtained  by  thoroughly 
mixing  one  part  Paste  with  an  equal  volume  of 
water  and  while  stirring  vigorously  add  suffi- 
cient more  volumes  of  water  to  give  proportions 
required  above. 

The  milky  solution  resulting  from  the  mix- 
ture of  Paste  and  water  in  the  above  proportion 
should  be  used  in  place  of  clear  water  to  temper 
the  dry  mixture  of  cement  and  aggregate. 

In  case  the  mixture  of  Paste  and  water 
is  allowed  to  stand  for  any  interval  between 
using,  it  should  be  most  thoroughly  stirred 
to  insure  an  even  and  uniform  solution 
each  time  just  before  using.  The  Paste 
diffuses  so  readily  that  this  imposes  no  ad- 
ditional trouble,  as  very  little  agitation  will 
insure  its  perfect  distribution. 

The  following  table  gives  the  quantities  of 
cement,  sand  and  TRUSCON  Waterproofing 
Paste,  Concentrated,  required  for  a  1:2  water- 
proofed plaster  coat  to  cover  100  square  feet  of 
surface. 

Bbls. 
Cement 


Thick- 
Proportions        ness 

1  part  Cement  1      1"  1.00 

2  parts  Sand      \  %"  0.75 
Area  100  sq.  ft.j    H*              0-50 


Cu.  yds. 
Sand 
.28 
.21 
.14 


Pounds 
Paste 
8 
6 

4 


Hotel  Biltmore,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Truscon  Waterproofing 

Paste,   Concentrated, 

used  in  construction  of 

this  building. 


TRUSCON  Service 

Waterproofing  and  dampproofing  problems 
have  been  the  province  of  The  TRUSCON 
Laboratories  for  many  years.  Its  organization 
includes  a  corps  of  expert  chemists  and  chem- 
ical engineers,  whose  advice  upon  special  prob- 
lems in  this  field  is  at  your  disposal.  This 
service  is  without  charge  or  obligation— do  not 
hesitate  to  avail  yourself  of  it  at  any  time. 


Elks  Building,  New  Orleans,  La. 
Toledano,  Wogan  &  Benard,  Architects 

All  mortar  used  in  brick  work  waterproofed  with  Truscon 
Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated. 


Transportation  Building,  Atlanta  Ga. 

A.  Ten  Eyck  Brown,  Architect,  W.  C.  Spiker,  Structural  Engineer 
Gude  &  Company,  Contractors 

Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste  used  in  all  retaining  walls,  floors  and 
other  concrete  coming  in  contact  with  the  ground. 


Bangor,  Me.  High  School 

Architects,  Peabody  &  Stearns.  Contractors,  George  H.  Wilber  &  Sons 
Difficult  Leakage  Remedied  by  Truscon  Pas  e,  ConantnteJ 

STOPS  STUBBORN  LEAKAGE 

Bangor,  Maine,  November  17,  1914. 
The  Truscon  Laboratories, 

Detroit,  Mich. 
Gentlemen: 

In  justice  to  your  product,  Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,  we 
wish  to  say  that  in  the  new  Bangor  High  School  we  met  with  a  par- 
ticularly stubborn  leakage  in  the  basement  and,  after  some  delibera- 
tion on  the  part  of  the  School  Board. and  our  firm,  we  concluded 
to  use  your  product,  namely,  the  Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste, 
and  proceeded  to  use  the  same  as  per  your  instructions.  The  floors 
of  the  two  rooms  which  we  waterproofed  had  been  finished,  but  we 
simply  went  over  them  with  your  Waterproofing  Paste  in  a  plaster 
coat  one  inch  (1 ")  thick  and  continued  same  up  the  walls  to  a  ground 
two  feet  (2')  above  same,  and  on  completion  of  this  work  had  it 
absolutely  waterproof. 

We  do  not  know  that  there  is  anything  more  to  say  in  regard  to 
this  work,  but  we  wish  to  further  add  that  on  the  writer's  own  resi- 
dence in  Old  Town,  Maine,  he  has  used  this  Paste  in  his  stucco  work 
on  the  second  story,  which  has  proved  absolutely  waterproof  and, 
after  several  driving  storms,  south  and  east,  there  are  no  indications 
of  any  dampness  whatever.  Further  along  he  used  your  "Stone- 
Tex"  on  his  outside  veranda  floor,  and  after  using  only  one  coat  the 
waterproofing  is  absolutely  perfect,  draining  everything  to  the 
outlet. 

If  there  is  anything  more  we  can  say  in  regard  to  our  highest 
approval  of  your  products,  we  will  be  only  too  pleased  to  do  so. 
Yours  very  truly, 

GEORGE  H.  WILBUR  &  SONS. 


EIGHT  FEET'FLOOD  WATER— BASEMENT 
STAYED  DRY 

Rochester,  N.  Y.,  April  3,  1916. 
The  Truscon  Laboratories, 

Detroit,  Mich. 
Gentlemen: 

In  1915  we  erected  for  George  C.  Buell  &  Company  in  this  city 
a  new  warehouse  building  and  due  to  the  close  proximity  of  this 
building  to  the  Genesee  River,  we  waterproofed  the  basement  walls 
and  floor  with  TRUSCON  Waterproofing  Paste. 

The  building  has  recently  undergone  a  most  severe  test  from 
flood  water  and  we  have  no  doubt  you  will  be  interested  to  learn 
of  the  successful  outcome  of  the  waterproofing  work. 

The  basement  floor  is  two  feet  below  the  normal  water  level  in 
the  river  and  taking  into  consideration  the  possibility  of  the  river 
overflowing  its  banks  at  flood  time,  the  floor  was  heavily  reinforced 
to  resist  hydrostatic  pressure  and  the  concrete  floor  slab,  together 
with  the  14*  concrete  walls  of  the  basement  to  a  point  12"  above 
grade,  was  waterproofed  by  adding  TRUSCON  Paste  to  the  water 
used  in  tempering  the  concrete. 

The  water  rose  to  a  height  of  over  eight  feet,  overflowing  the 
river  banks,  completely  surrounding  the  building,  at  one  time 
reaching  a  height  of  nearly  12'  above  grade  on  the  street  side. 
The  basement  interior,  walls  and  floors  remained  at  all  times  as  dry 
as  in  midsummer,  the  only  water  coming  in  was  that  which  seeped 
in  through  the  basement  windows  (when  same  were  half  under 
water),  through  form  wires  which  had  been  left  in  the  wall  and  in  a 
few  instances  not  properly  plugged,  and  through  some  water  coming 
into  the  basement  through  the  backing  up  of  the  sewer.  The  con- 
crete work  we  found  to  be  absolutely  impervious  to  dampness  and  feel 
that  the  use  of  the  waterproofing  paste  has  been  entirely  successful. 

We  are  quite  enthusiastic  over  the  performance  and  have  no 
hesitancy  in  approving  the  use  of  the  material  for  all  waterproofing  work. 

Thanking  you  for  the  assistance  and  personal  attention  given 
this  work  at  the  time  of  construction,  we  are, 
Very  truly  yours, 

C.   A.  LIVINGSTON, 
For  Walker,  Livingston  &  Bracket!. 


Municipal  Pier  No.  78,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Snare  &  Triest  Co.,  General  Contractors 

This  pier  extends  1,000  f«*et  into  the  river.    All  concrete  waterproofed 
with  Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,   Concentrated. 


George  C.  Buell  Company's  Warehouse,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 
Walker,  Livingston  &  Brackett,  Architects 

Basement  waterproofed  with  Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,   Con- 
centrated.       The     letter     printed    above    shows    how    effectively 
Truscon  Paste  waterproofed  this  basement    as    demonstrated    by 
the  Rochester  flood. 

MOFFETT  8s  SONS 
Wholesale  Grocers 

Flint,  Mich.,  May  27,  1913. 
The  Truscon  Laboratories, 

Detroit,  Mich. 
Gentlemen: 

Last  summer,  as  you  are  aware,  we  erected  a  building  in  this  city 
for  the  accommodation  of  our  Wholesale  Grocery  Business.  The- 
location  on  which  we  erected  this  building — while  ideal  from  a  dis- 
tributive point  of  view,  being  in  the  heart  of  the  business  district — 
is  near  the  river  and  the  floor  of  our  basement  being  necessarily  sev- 
eral feet  below  the  level  of  the  river,  caused  us  considerable  anxiety  as 
to  the  results  of  our  efforts  to  insure  a  dry  basement.  We  had  pre- 
viously received  through  the  mail  some  of  your  printed  matter  relat- 
ing to  TRUSCON  Waterproofing  Paste,  and  having  faith  in  your 
statement  that  this  paste  would  actually  make  concrete  mixture 
waterproof,  we  purchased  enough  to  cover  the  necessary  require- 
ments for  waterproofing  the  basement  floor  and  walls  to  a  height 
of  one  foot  above  the  ground  level.  We  used  this  paste  strictly  in  ac- 
cordance with  your  instructions,  and  it  affords  us  pleasure  to  assure 
you  that  the  results  are  most  gratifying,  for  notwithstanding  the 
fact  that  our  building  stands  on  porous  ground  and  sandy  soil, 
and  as  before  stated  the  basement  floor  is  lower  than  the  level  of  the 
river,  we  have  an  absolutely  dry  basement,  which  means  to  us. 
another  story  added  to  our  building,  which  we  believe  would  not 
have  been  possible  were  it  not  for  the  fact  that  we  used  your 
TRUSCON  Waterproofing  Paste  in  our  concrete  mixture. 

We  are  building  another  block  of  two  stores  this  summer  in  "a 
similar  location  and  have  specified  that  TRUSCON  Waterproofing 
Paste[must  be  used  in  floor  and  wall  construction. 

Assuming  that  the  foregoing  information  may  be  of  interest'to 
you,  we  are  Cordially, 

MOFFETT  86  SONS. 


Municipal   Reservoir,   Asheville,   N.   C. 

Thoroughly  and  Permanently  Waterproofed  with 
Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,   Concentrated 

A  CONVINCING  REPORT 

Asheville,  N.  C.,  October  15,  1910. 
The  Truscon  Laboratories, 
Detroit,  Mich. 

This  reinforced  concrete  reservoir,  built  to  insure  an  auxiliary 
or  emergency  supply  for  the  water  system  of  Asheville,  N.  C.,  has  a 
capacity  of  5,000,000  gallons  of  water.  The  reservoir  is  150  feet  in 
diameter  at  the  bottom  and  is  40  feet  deep.  The  wall  is  three  and 
one-half  feet  thick  at  the  bottom  and  tapers  to  a  thickness  of  eight 
inches  at  the  top. 

As  originally  constructed  the  reservoir  was  not  satisfactory,  but 
has  been  brought  to  stand  a  thorough  test  and  has  just  been  accepted 
by  the  city  after  additional  work,  which  was  done  by  Mr.  George  H. 
Davidson,  a  contractor  of  Asheville.  The  bottom  of  the  tank,  when 
Mr.  Davidson  began  work  on  it,  was  from  two  to  six  inches  thick  with 
concrete  filling  up  the  crevices  and  the  entire  floor  of  the  tank  was 
cracked  very  badly.  The  sides  of  the  tank  were  originally  built  in  five- 
foot  sections,  and  at  these  seams  there  was  a  constant  leakage.  At 
some  places  there  were  cracks  up  and  down  the  wall,  while  nearly  all 
of  the  wall  was  porous  and  water  seeped  through.  Mr.  Davidson 
broke  out  all  of  the  old  bottom  entirely  around  for  a  distance  of  two 
feet  from  the  wall,  going  down  to  solid  rock  and  cleaning  out  all 
cracks  and  crevices.  He  then  filled  all  with  good  concrete  mixed  with 
TRUSCON  Waterproofing  Paste  to  the  level  of  the  old  floor.  On  top 
of  this  he  laid  the  8-inch  floor  with  J^-inch  reinforcing  steel,  filled  with 
TRUSCON  Waterproofing  Paste  and  concrete  as  per  TRUSCON 
specifications,  using  fifteen  barrels  of  the  Paste  in  the  bottom.  He 
then  cut  out  all  joints  on  the  wall  and  filled  them  with  cement  mortar 
mixed  with  TRUSCON  Waterproofing  Paste. 

Mr.  Davidson's  contract  was  "no  pay  if  not  water-tight"  after  a 
test  of  90  days  with  reservoir  full  of  water;  and  at  the  end  of  90  days 
the  mayor  and  five  aldermen  examined  the  reservoir  and  found  that 
he  had  complied  with  his  contract  and  made  good.  Quite  a  number 
of  outside  firms  made  bids  for  waterproofing  of  this  reservoir,  the 
lowest  bid  of  these  being  in  the  neighborhood  of  $20,000,  while  the 
cost  under  Mr.  Davidson's  plan  was  $11,400,  and  he  made  some 
money.  A  number  of  firms  making  waterproofing  material  solicited 
this  business  but  after  demonstrations  and  examining  the  merits 
of  the  various  waterproof  materials,  Mr.  Davidson  told  me  that  he 
had  decided  that  TRUSCON  Waterproofing  Paste  was  the  best 
material  to  use;  and  he  used  it  and  made  good. 

N.  BUCKNER, 
Secretary  Asheville  Board  of  Trade. 


TWO  YEARS  LATER 

Ashville,  N.  C.,  December  14,  1912. 
The  Truscon  Laboratories, 

Detroit,  Mich. 
Gentlemen : 

Referring  to  your  booklet,  "Science  and  Practice  in  Waterproof- 
ing," in  which  you  show  an  illustration  of  the  Asheville  Auxiliary 
Reservoir  with  description  of  its  repairs  made  by  the  writer. 

It  gives  me  pleasure  to  state  that  this  tank  is  still  in  good  shape, 
and  I  am  sending  you  under  separate  cover  a  new  picture,  which  was 
made  about  two  or  three  weeks  ago. 

Yours  very  truly, 

N.  BUCKNER,  Secretary. 


FOUR  YEARS  LATER 

Asheville,    N.    C.,    March    20,    1914. 

The  Truscon  Laboratories, 

Detroit,  Mich. 

Your  telegrams  received.  I  have  sent  the  following  message 
to-day:  "Our  big  auxiliary  concrete  reservoir  water-tighted  in  nine- 
teen ten  with  TRUSCON  Waterproofing  Paste  by  Geo.  H.  David- 
son, a  local  contractor,  has  been  and  is  now  satisfactory.  Prior  to 
that  time,  could  not  be  used." 

N.  BUCKNER, 

Secretary  Asheville  Board  of  Trade. 


SOHO  PUBLIC  BATHS 
2410  Fifth  Avenue,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

The  Truscon  Laboratories,  January  31,  1912. 

Detroit,  Mich. 
Dear  Sirs: 

Regrading  the  waterproofing  of  the  Soho  Baths  with  your 
TRUSCON  Paste,  will  say  that  the  same  is  perfectly  satisfactory. 

Our  condition  was  rather  extreme;  the  building  is  situated  on 
Fifth  Avenue,  3  stories  above  and  3  stories  below  Fifth  Avenue.  Our 
front  wall  extends  down  36  feet  below  the  street,  being  12  H  feet  thick 
at  the  bottom,  composed  of  concrete. 

The  water  backed  up  against  the  wall  from  springs  in  the  hill 
and  came  through  a  dozen  different  places,  running  continually  at 
all  seasons  of  the  year  at  100  gallons  per  hour.  By  applying  a  plaster 
coat  scinch  thick  1:2,  mixing  the  TRUSCON  Paste  to  the  water, 
we  have  secured  a  water-tight  job  and  our  walls  are  now  perfectly 
dry,  enabling  us  to  utilize  the  floors  below  Fifth  Avenue  and  make  a 
swimming  pool  in  which  we  have  used  the  TRUSCON  Paste  with 
satisfaction. 

The  walls  were  so  dry  that  the  carpenter,  thinking  there  was  no 
water  back,  drilled  through  the  plaster  coat  to  fasten  partition,  when 
instantly  the  water  gushed  forth  in  a  stream  with  much  pressure, 
proving  conclusively  that  your  material  is  a  thorough  waterproof, 
and  we  will  always  use  it  in  our  waterproofing. 
Yours  truly, 

D.  P.  MARSHALL, 

Superintendent. 


Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  March  20,  1914. 
The  Truscon  Laboratories, 
Detroit,  Mich. 

At  Mr.  Mackin's  request  I  send  you  my  best  indorsement  of 
TRUSCON  Waterproofing  Paste.  We  had  an  almost  impossible  job 
successfully  treated  with  this  material.  Conditions  too  extreme  to 
go  into  details.  Using  nothing  else  now. 

D.  P.  MARSHALL,  Supt-, 
Soho  Public  Baths,  City  of  Pittsburgh 


Swimming  Pool,  Soho  Public  Baths,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated,  Remedies    a    Seem- 
ingly Impossible  Condition 


Swimming  Pool,  Y.  W.  C.  A.  Building,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Hewitt  &  Granger,  Architects.    Charles  Gilpin,  General  Contractor 
Effectively  Waterproofed  with  Truscon  Paste,  Concentrated 


CONSTRUCTION    SUPERINTENDENT    WELL 
PLEASED 

Philadelphia,  Pa.,  July  31,  1915. 
The  Truscon  Laboratories, 
Detroit,  Mich. 

Regarding  the  use  of  Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste  in  the  swim- 
ming pool  of  the  Y.  W.  C.  A.  Building,  would  say  that  I  have  found  it 
very  satisfactory  indeed. 

The  pool  is  4  feet  deep  at  the  shallow  and  9  feet  6  inches  at  the 
deep  portion.  It  is  20  feet  wide  and  60  feet  long.  The  walls  are  10 
inches  thick  with  a  10  inch  bottom.  We  used  a  1:2:4  mix  with  24 
parts  of  water  to  every  one  part  of  your  Waterproofing  Paste. 

We  stripped  the  outside  of  the  pool  the  day  after  pouring,  to  allow 
the  air  to  get  to  it  and  to  see  if  there  were  any  voids.  In  a  week,  we 
stripped  the  inside  of  the  pool  and  cleaned  it  thoroughly.  We  then 
allowed  it  to  stand  for  one  week.  Following  this  we  filled  it  half  full 
of  water,  allowing  it  to  stand  thus  for  a  week,  then  filling  it  to  over- 
flow, and  leaving  the  pool  standing  full  of  water. 

We  found  the  pool  absolutely  water-tight,  with  the  exception  of 
where  the  feed  water  pipes  and  over-flows  passed  through  the  wall. 
Underneath  these  pipes,  there  were  several  small  leaks,  caused  by 
shrinkage  of  the  concrete.  After  pumping  the  pool,  we  stopped  the 
leaks  by  cutting  around  the  pipes  about  two  inches,  and  taking  strings 
of  oakum  soaked  in  Truscon  Plaster  Bond,  and  caulking  tightly.  We 
then  cemented  over  these  places  with  a  1 :1  mix  using  18  parts  of  water 
to  one  part  of  Waterproofing  Paste. 

I  cannot   speak  too  highly  of  Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste.    If 
conditions  are  thoroughly  examined,  and  the  Paste  used  according 
to  directions,  an  absolutely  watertight  job  will  be  obtained. 
Yours  truly, 

W.  HARVEY,  Supt.  of  Construction. 


R.  D.  BURNETT  CIGAR  COMPANY 

Birmingham,  Ala.,  June  12,  1913. 
The  Truscon  Laboratories, 

Detroit,  Mich. 
Gentlemen: 

Regarding  your  inquiry  as  to  the  results  obtained  through  the 
waterproofing  of  the  basement  in  our  Wholesale  Cigar  House,  part  of 
which  is  also  used  for  Retail  and  Wholesale  Piano  Store  purposes: 
wish  to  state  that  through  the  directions  of  the  architect  for  this 
building,  Mr.  H.  B.  Wheelock,  this  city,  we  bought  of  you  about  1500 
pounds  of  the  TRUSCON  Waterproofing  Paste,  as  manufactured  by 
THE  TRUSCON  LABORATORIES,  and  used  same  on  the  work 
with  the  best  results.  The  basement,  even  after  the  concrete  base 
of  the  floor  and  the  concrete  walls  were  poured,  was  certainly  in  very 
bad  condition  owing  to  the  great  amount  of  water  which  ran  every- 
where through  the  concrete.  As  I  understand,  the  Waterproofing 
Paste  was  used  in  the  1-inch  cement  finish  of  the  floors  and  in  the 
?4-inch  cement  coat  applied  to  all  the  basement  walls,  and  as  we 
had  a  very  competent  man  direct  the  application  of  the  cement 
finish,  we  were  very  successful  indeed  in  getting  an  absolutely  water- 
tight job,  in  spite  of  the  pressure  under  which  the  water  seemed  to 
come  through  the  concrete  previous  to  the  time  of  applying  the 
cement  finish. 

Since  the  work  has  been  completed,  about  four  months  ago,  we 
have  had  some  very  hot  weather,  but  so  far  have  not  had  any  signs  of 
defective  work  or  defects  due  to  the  material  in  any  part  of  the  base- 
ment. The  goods  stored  in  the  basemerj;  require  absolutely  dry  stor- 
age space  as  even  a  slight  dampness  would  affect  them  seriously,  and 
we  can  only  say  that  we  have  no  trouble  whatever  on  account  of 
dampness  or  wet  spots  in  floor  or  walls. 

We,  therefore,  take  occasion  to  state  that  we  can  unhesitatingly 
recommend  the  use  of  this  material  for  waterproofing  purposes, 
under  severe  conditions,  as  we  certainly  had  bad  conditions  before 
the  work  was  waterproofed  and  had  all  kinds  of  water  in  the  base- 
ment. You  are  at  perfect  liberty  to  use  this  letter  in  any  way  that 
will  help  you  to  bring  this  excellent  material  before  the  trade. 
Very  truly  yours, 

R.  D.  BURNETT  CIGAR  COMPANY, 

Per  R.   D.  Burnett,  Pres. 


New  Sheeter  Building,  Charleston,  S.  C. 
Lockwood,  Greene  &  Co.,  Engineers 

Concrete  waterproofed   with   Truscon   Waterproofing   Paste,    Con- 
centrated. 


Concrete  Purifying  Tanks,  Arlington  Gas  Light  Co., 
Arlington,  Mass. 

Tanks  made  Gas  Tight  through  use  of 
Trus-Con  Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated 


THE    LIGHT,    HEAT    &    POWER    CORPORATION 

Boston,  Mass.,  August  11,  1914 
The  Truscon  Laboratories, 

Detroit,  Mich. 
Gentlemen: 

Regarding  your  inquiry  concerning  the  results  obtained  from 
using  Truscpn  Waterproofing  Paste  in  the  reinforced  concrete  gas 
purifiers  which  we  built  recently  for  the  Arlington  Gas  Light  Com- 
pany at  Arlington,  Mass.,  I  beg  to  state  that  the  paste  was  applied 
by  the  integral  method  according  to  your  directions,  and  after  the 
forms  were  removed  the  boxes  were  given  a  one-inch  plaster  coat 
inside.  After  being  completed,  these  boxes  were  subjected  to  an 
air  and  gas  test  of  one  pound  pressure.  The  concrete  in  two  of  the 
boxes  was  found  to  be  perfectly  gas  tight  and  that  of  the  third  had 
one  very  slight  leak  which  was  stopped  immediately  after  its  location. 
We  are  very  well  satisfied  with  the  results  obtained  with  this 
Paste  and  believe  it  will  give  satisfaction  on  any  work  of  similar 
character. 

Yours  very  truly, 

F.  E.  LEARNED,  Mgr. 


H.  B.  NELSON  &  SONS 
Contractors 

Muskogee,  Okla.,  June  25,  1914. 
The  Truscon  Laboratories, 

Detroit,  Mich. 
Gentlemen: 

In  March,  1913,  we  finished  the  Agency  Hill  Reservoir  for  the  City 
of  Muskogee  and  waterproofed  this  6,000,000  gallon  reservoir  with 
Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste.  We  first  used  the  Waterproofing 
Paste  in  the  construction  of  a  small  tank  in  which  to  store  wcter  for 
mixing  concrete  as  the  reservoir  site  was  above  the  reach  of  city  water. 
This  tank  we  reinforced  with  woven  wire  and  concrete  of  1-2-4  mix- 
ture. We  used  in  this  the  recommended  mixture  and  this  tank  with 
three-inch  walls  was  completely  waterproof. 

In  constructing  the  large  reservoir,  after  removing  the  forms  and 
while  the  concrete  was  yet  damp  we  put  upon  it  a  thin  coating  of 
cement  made  up  of  Waterproofing  Paste  diluted  in  water.  Upon 
the  floor  of  the  reservoir  while  green  we  put  on  two  heavy  coats  of 
the  Waterproofing  (as  above  mixed).  In  this  way  we  closed  all  sand 
voids  and  overcame  any  unevenness  in  the  concrete  with  very  satis- 
factory results. 

Our  specifications  permitted  of  not  more  than  five  gallons  of 
seepage  per  minute,  but  when  the  test  was  made  by  the  city  for  its 
acceptance  there  was  only  one  quart  seepage.  The  structure  was 
thoroughly  sub-drained  with  tile  around  and  under  the  floor  and  any 
seepage  there  was,  occurred  not  through  the  concrete  but  at  points 
where  the  supply  and  delivery  pipes  passed  through  the  floor.  At  any 
rate  at  this  time,  one  year  after  completion,  the  seepage  is  practically 
nothing.  Yours  truly, 

H.  B.  NELSON  &  SONS, 

By  J.  Perwitt  Nelson. 


iflfff 


Agency  Hill  Reservoir,  Muskogee,  Okla. 

H.  B.  Nelson  and  Sons,  Contractors 

Effectively  Waterproofed  with  Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste, 
Concert  tra  ted 


Iron   Removal   and   Filtration   Plant,    Camp   Funston,    Kansas 

Basins  and  all  concrete  walls  and  floors  coming  in  contact  with  water 


JAMES  KENNEDY  CONSTRUCTION  COMPANY 

The  Truscon  Laboratories,  Portland,  Oregon,  Feb.  9,  1915. 

Detroit,  Mich. 

Replying  to  your  inquiry  with  reference  to  our  use  of  Truscon 
Waterproofing  material.  We  used  your  material  last  year  in  the 
construction  of  six  reservoirs:  Two  at  Linnton,  two  at  Willbridge, 
and  two  at  Whitwood  Court.  The  Waterproofing  proved  to  be  satis- 
factory in  every  way,  as  the  city  test  showed  no  leaks  through  the 
concrete.  The  engineer  on  this  work  was  Mr.  L.  C.  Kelsey,  Selling 
Building,  Portland,  Oregon.  He  can  certify  to  the  truth  of  this  state- 
ment, as  he  was  present  and  in  charge  of  the  city  when  the  tests  were 
made.  Yours  truly, 

JAMES  KENNEDY  CONSTRUCTION  CO. 
By  J.  D.  Hanley. 

THE  FAIRMONT  CREAMERY  COMPANY 

The  Truscon  Laboratories,  May  1st,  1914. 

Detroit,  Mich. 

Referring  to  your  inquiry  as  to  whether  we  were  pleased  with 
Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste  Concentrated  which  we  used  on  all 
floors  of  our  new  building  in  Columbus,  where  water  was  freely  used, 
will  say  that  we  found  it  very  satisfactory. 

We  put  six  inches  of  concrete  and  one  inch  of  topping  on  these 
floors  and  we  used  the  Paste  in  both.  We  have  never  had  any  trouble 
with  the  water  soaking  through,  and  in  fact  we  are  so  well  pleased 
with  this  material  that  we  used  it  on  some  concrete  floors  which  were 
placed  upon  wooden  floors  in  a  building  we  fitted  up  for  a  creamery 
at  Buffalo,  N.  Y.  So  far,  in  the  latter  building,  we  have  seen  no  leaks 
through  this  material. 

As  far  as  we  can  see,  and  we  have  given  it  an  eight  months'  test  in 
Columbus,  this  material  gives  perfect  satisfaction. 

Yours  truly, 
THE  FAIRMONT  CREAMERY  COMPANY, 

By  M.  H.  Bennett,  Construction  Manager 


W.  H.  SIEVERLING,  C.  E. 
General  Contractor 

Springfield,  Ohio. 
The  Truscon  Laboratories, 

Detroit,  Mich. 
Gentlemen: 

Regarding  the  waterproofing  you  furnished  for  the  Springfield 
Light,  Heat  &  Power  Co.'s  new  consolidated  power-house,  will  say 
that  nearly  two  tons  of  "TRUSCON  Waterproofing  Paste"  were 
used. 

The  situation  seemed  hopeless,  as  I  had  not  only  to  contend  with 
numerous  living  springs,  flowing  through  the  power  plant,  coming 
up  from  the  fissures  and  seams  of  limestone  cliffs  out  of  which  the 
foundations  were  blasted,  but  also  high  waters  from  a  turbulent 
creek,  flowing  by  the  plant.  I  had  as  much  as  eight  (8)  feet  of  water 
in  the  basements  about  all  last  winter  and  spring. 

After  much  pumping  and  building  of  sheep  troughs  and  sumps, 
and  using  plenty  of  TRUSCON  Waterproofing  Paste  incorporated 
into  the  concrete  for  walls,  floors  and  top  coat,  I  succeeded  in  getting 
a  perfectly  dry  basement  for  their  electrical  machinery. 

I  like  to  use  TRUSCON  Paste,  because  with  the  average  common 
labor  you  can  get,  it  is  easier  to  use  and  get  results  than  with  any 
other  waterproofing  that  requires  intelligent,  if  not  expert,  manipula- 
tion. 

I  can  assure  you  that  the  Light  Company  is  more  than  satisfied, 
as  we  have  had  some  high  waters  since,  and  everything  proved  water- 
tight. 

Very  truly, 

W.  H.  SIEVERLING. 


New  Electric  Plant  of  Oshkosh  Gas  Company,  Oshkosh,  Wis. 
Wm.   A.   Baehr,   Chief  Consulting  and   Constructing  Engineer 

Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste  used  in  Crusher  and  Water  Softening 
pits,  14  ft.  head  of  water. 


Factory  of  the  Abrasive  Co.,  Bridesburg,  Pa. 

Horace  W.  Castor,  Architect 
John  R.  Wiggins  Co.,  Inc.,  General  Contractors 

Pits  under  grinding  machines  waterproofed  with  Truscon  Water- 
proofing   Paste,     Concentrated.      Absolute    dry  ness    essential    in 
these  pits. 

BICKS  85  KLUNPP 
The  Truscon  Laboratories,  Decatur,  111. 

Detroit,  Mich. 
Gentlemen : 

We  are  in  the  concrete  business,  and  are  making  burial  vaults. 

We  are  told  that  if  we  used Waterproofing  Powder  we  could 

make  these  vaults  waterproof,  but  we  find  by  filling  the  vaults  with 
water,  that  they  leak  like  sieves,  and  that  the  waterproofing  powder 
comes  up  to  the  top  as  the  concrete  is  pored.  After  the  vaults  have 
set,  you  can  scrape  the  powder  off  with  your  finger,  and  it  leaves  the 
concrete  full  of  soft  places. 

We  do  not  care  to  risk  any  more  labor  or  material  with  powder 
waterproofing,  but  want  you  to  send  us  prices  on  your  Waterproofing 
Paste.  We  have  poured  a  box  about  12  inches  square,  using 
TRUSCON  Waterproofing  Paste,  and  upon  filling  same  with  water, 
note  that  the  outside  keeps  perfectly  dry.  In  using  the  powder  water- 
proofing, we  gave  the  same  careful  attention  to  the  mixing.  We  first 
mixed  the  cement  and  waterproofing  compound  through  a  fine 
sieve,  and  made  sure  that  the  dry  mixture  was  perfectly  uniform. 
Very  truly  yours, 

BICKS  &  KLUNPP. 

BATES  MANUFACTURING  CO. 
The  Truscon  Laboratories,  Lewiston,  Maine, 

Detroit,  Mich. 
Gentlemen: 

Your    telegram    of  today   received.        We    used    53    barrels   of 
TRUSCON  Waterproofing  Paste  to  waterproof  concrete  walls  and 
floors  of  turbine  chambers,  forebay  and  tailrace  of  hydraulic  power 
plant.     Present  conditions  indicate  perfect  success. 
Very  respectfully, 

BATES  MANUFACTURING  CO. 


F.  B.  HATCH 
Contractor  and  Builder 

San  Juan,  Porto  Rico. 
Messrs.  Behn  Bros.,  San  Juan,  P.  R. 
Gentlemen: 

I  take  pleasure  in  stating  that  I  have  used    your  TRUSCON 
Waterproofing  Paste  on  several  pumping  pits  where  they  had  very 
severe  test  and  will  say  that  I  am  highly  pleased  with  it.     It  is  the 
best  waterproofing  for  mixing  with  concrete  that  I  have  yet  found. 
Yours  very  truly, 

F.  B.  HATCH. 


WAUKESHA  CONCRETE  BLOCK  &  MATERIAL  CO. 

Waukesha,  Wis. 
The  Truscon  Laboratories, 

Detroit,  Mich. 

We  believe  your  TRUSCON  Waterproofing  Paste  to  be  superior 
to  other  preparations  we  have  used. 

Very  truly, 
WAUKESHA  CON.  BLOCK  &  MAT.  CO. 


New  Orleans  Country  Club,  New  Orleans,  La. 
Favrot  &  Livaudais,  Architects 

Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,   Concentrated,  used  in  basements 
and  on  all  floors. 


Tacony  Ordnance  Co.,  Tacony,  Pa. 
W.  F.  Mark  Const.  Co.,  General  Contractors 

Basements  of  all  buildings  waterproofed  with  Truscon  Waterproof- 
ing Paste,  Concentrated.     Water  in  the  foreground  is  the  Dela- 
ware River  which  at  this  point  has  a  tide  of  five  feet;  basements 
are  well  under  water  at  high  tide. 


PACIFIC    ELECTRIC    ENGINEERING    COMPANY 

Portland,  Oregon. 
The  Truscon  Laboratories, 

Detroit,  Mich. 

In  answer  to  your  inquiry  of  recent  date,  we  beg  to  say  that  we 
used  eighty  gallons  of  TRUSCON  Waterproofing  Paste  last  Febru- 
ary in  the  floors  and  walls  of  the  machinery  pit  of  the  power  house, 
erected  by  us  at  Oswego  for  the  Oregon  Iron  and  Steel  Co. 

After  the  pit  walls  were  completed  and  before  the  cement  had 
time  to  fairly  set,  an  accident  occurred  at  the  headgates  which  caused 
the  water  to  stand  in  the  pit  about  three  feet  deep  for  a  week.  Dur- 
ing this  time  the  walls  showed  no  leakage  and  we  are  thoroughly  con- 
vinced that  you  have  an  article  that  will  waterproof  any  cement 
that  it  is  applied  to. 

Should  we  need  any  in  the  future  you  may  rest  assured  that  you 
will  hear  from  us. 

Yours  very  truly, 
PACIFIC  ELECTRIC  ENGINEERING  CO. 


GLENMORE  DISTILLERIES  COMPANY 

Owensboro,  Ky. 
The  Truscon  Laboratories, 

Detroit,  Mich. 
Gentlemen: 

Regarding  the  use  of  TRUSCON  Waterproofing  Paste  for  the 
construction  of  tanks  and  cisterns,  we  are  pleased  to  advise  that  last 
summer  we  constructed  a  beer  well  16  feet  in  diameter  by  12  feet 
deep,  using  a  1-2-4  mix  of  washed  gravel  concrete,  and  mixing  this 
with  TRUSCON  Waterproofing  Paste  as  per  your  standard  speci- 
fications. 

Two  days  after  this  beer  well  was  poured  it  was  surrounded  with 
water  to  within  one  foot  of  the  top,  but  so  far  we  have  yet  to  see  the 
slightest  sign  of  seepage,  and  it  is  apparently  absolutely  water-tight. 

Yours  very  truly, 
GLENMORE  DISTILLERIES  COMPANY, 

By  H.  S.  Barton,  V.  P.  and  Gen.  Mgr. 


THE  LEHIGH  COAL  &  NAVIGATION  CO. 
Bangor,  Maine 

Bangor,  Me.,  October  23,  1913. 
Messrs.  N.  H.  Bragg  &  Sons, 

City. 
Gentlemen: 

I  have  refrained  from  reporting  the  results  of  our  waterproofing 
until  the  TRUSCON  work  had  adequate  water-resisting  tests.  The 
last  three  weeks  of  rain  have  afforded  us  satisfactory  demonstration 
of  the  goodness  of  TRUSCON. 

Our  pocket  is  erected  over  a  tunnel,  about  150  x  8  x  8,  and  be- 
neath the  tunnel  is  a  subterranean  river,  icy-cold,  with  swift  current. 
At  far  end  of  tunnel,  a  ledge  retarded  egress  of  water,  down  the  gen- 
eral gently  sloping  tract  on  which  the  pocket  is  built.  The  tunnel  was 
well  built,  the  action  of  the  river,  and  boiling  springs  nearly  broke  its 
back,  despite  the  several  thousand  tons  of  dead -weight.  The  floor  and 
both  sides  of  the  tunnel  opened,  and  through  the  fissures  poured  the 
water,  at  times.  An  endless  carrier  with  several  hundred  balancing 
buckets  runs  in  the  tunnel  through  ends  and  across  top  of  pocket.  * 
Frequently,  upon  starting  work  for  the  day,  and  particularly  in 
winter,  we  would  find  a  seepage  during  the  night  of  about  30,000  to 
35,000  gallons  of  crystal,  cold  water  in  the  tunnel  submerging  the 
buckets.  In  zero  weather,  the  attendant  ice  was  costly  and  annoying, 
to  put  it  mildly. 

The  combined  efforts  of  rotary  pump  and  six-inch  drain  leading 
from  far  end  of  tunnel  failed  to  carry  off  the  water  at  all  times. 

We  had  the  tunnel  waterproofed  two    years  ago,  and  for  a  time 
it  held.    Although  at  no  time  did  this  repaired  tunnel  have  so  long  a 
siege  of  rain,  feeding  the  river  and  springs,  it  eventually  broke  under 
strain  less  severe  than  to  which  subjected  since  October  1. 
Finally,  we  evolved  a  new  plan. 

We  dug  auxiliary  side  drains,  giving  total  drainage  length  of  about 
3,000  feet,  blasted  the  ledge,  and  then  having,  as  we  believe,  diverted 
the  water  in  a  measure,  we  followed  your  TRUSCON  book  to  the 
letter,  and  used  that  wonderful  compound  in  repairing  and  water- 
proofing the  great  fissures  in  our  heavy  concrete  tunnel  floor  and 
walls. 

The  work  was  performed  under  great  difficulties,  as  water  con- 
stantly was  bubbling  up  in  the  tunnel,  although  diminished  in  a 
measure  by  the  new  drains.  The  concrete  mixture  with  TRUSCON 
in  it  hardened  in  the  water,  and  it  was  remarkable  to  note  its  stiffen- 
ing propensities  under  circumstances  that  would  simply  wash  away 
ordinary  concrete  as  fast  as  placed  in  position. 

TRUSCON,  we  believe,  has  solved  our  costly,  vexatious  and  at 
times  baffling  problem.  I  might  add  that  the  cost  of  the  waterproof- 
ing did  not  exceed  $25,  although  several  thousands  had  been  expend- 
ed previously  in  the  attempt  to  overcome  the  trouble.  We  will  gladly 
impart  personal  information,  and  exhibit  the  work  to  any  others 
annoyed  by  similar  troubles,  and  show  them  how  to  overcome  them 
with  TRUSCON  Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated,  properly 
applied. 


Very  truly  yours, 


J.  McLEOD,   Agent. 


The  Gowan-Lenning-Brown  Building,  Duluth,  Minn. 
F.  G.  German,  Architect.    Leif  Jenssen,  Assistant  Architect 

W.  J.  Zitterell,  Contractor 

Basements  Waterproofed  against  heavy  hydrostatic  pressure  with 
Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated 


Smithfield  Street  Public  Comfort  Station,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

J.  P.  Brennan,  Architect 

Truscon    Waterproofing    Paste,    Concentrated,    used    throughout 
all  Concrete 


Municipal  Reservoir,  Daly  City,  Cal. 

F.  C.  Roberts,  Engineer.     Tieslau  Bros.,  Contractors 

Waterproofed  with  Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated 
in  accordance  with  Waterproofed  Cement  Plaster  Coat  proceess  ' 


HARDY  &  ARONS 
Dayton,  Ohio 

The  Truscon  Laboratories, 

Detroit,  Mich. 
Gentlemen : 

Ever  since  the  erection  of  the  Colonial  Building,  corner  of  Third 
and  Grimes  streets,  the  basement  has  been  useless  because  of  the 
great  seepage  of  water  through  the  walls  and  cement  floor. 

We  contracted  with  the  Dayton  Fiber  Plaster  Co.,  of  this  city, 
to  make  this  basement  watertight  and  dampproof  with  your  products. 
They  applied  a  M-inch  coating  of  cement  mortar  on  these  walls  and  a 
2-inch  cement  floor,  using  your  Waterproofing  Paste  in  the  water  with 
which  the  material  was  mixed.  The  surface  thus  treated  amounted 
to  about  10,000  square  feet.  Our  basement  is  now  absolutely  dry,  and 
we  cannot  too  highly  recommend  your  products. 


Respectfully  yours. 


HARDY  &  ARONS. 


A  Few  Representative  Users  of  Truscon  Waterproofing 

Paste,  Concentrated 


St.  Louis  South-Western  Ry. 

Albion  Shale  Brick  Co..  Albion,  III. 

Old  Crow  Distillery,  Glenn  Creek,  Ky. 

Packard  Motor  Car  Co..  Detroit  and  Philadelphia. 

Medical  College,  Charleston,  S.  C. 

Western  Sugar  Refining  Co.,  San  Francisco. 

Ford  Service  Buildings — 

Cincinnati. 

Louisville. 

Indianapolis. 

Atlanta. 

Dallas. 

New  York  City. 

Philadelphia. 

Detroit. 

Minneapolis. 

Bates  Mfg.  Co.,  Lewiston,  Me. 
Oliver  Chilled  Plow  Co.,  South  Bend,  Ind. 
Stroh  Brewing  Company,  Detroit,  Mich. 
Edison  Illuminating  Co.,  Detroit,  Mich. 
Pittsburgh  Comfort  Station,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 
Arlington  Gas  Co. 
City  Reservoir,  Daly,  Cal. 
Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  Ry. 
Kresge  Bldg.,  Detroit,  Mich. 
Hotel  Statler,  Detroit,  Mich. 
Lever  Bros.  Soap  Co.,  Boston,  Mass. 
Thomas  A.  Edison,  Newark,  N.  J. 
Goodyear  Rubber  Company,  Akron,  Ohio. 
Agency  Hill  Reservoir,  Muskogee,  Okla. 
Grand  Central  Terminal,  New  York  City,  N.  Y. 
Hawley  &  Hoops  Company,  New  York  City,  N.  Y. 
Revere  Rubber  Company,  Chelsea,  Mass. 
Bath  Iron  Works,  Bath,  Maine. 
Lozier  Motor  Car  Co.,  Detroit,  Mich. 
Hudson  Motor  Car  Co.,  Detroit,  Mich. 
Gramm  Motor  Car  Co.,  Lima,  Ohio. 
City  Reservoir,  St.  Charles,  Mo. 
City  Reservoir,  Hancock,  Mich. 
City  Reservoir,  Asheville,  N.  C. 
City  Reservoir,  Lafayette,  Ind. 
Lighting  Plant,  Springfield,  Ohio. 
Mexican  Light  &  Power  Co.,  Mexico  City,  Mexico. 
Westinghouse  Lamp  Factory,  Watsessing,  N.  J. 
Grain  Elevator,  Fort  Worth,  Texas. 
General  Electric  Co.,  Schenectady,  N.  Y., 
Goldfield  Milling  &  Transportation  Co.,  Goldfield,  Nev. 
Rogers-Brown  Ore  Co.,  Deerwood,  Minn. 
Markham  Air  Rifle  Co.,  Plymouth,  Mich. 
Seaboard  Airline  Ry.,  Portsmouth,  Va. 
Beckett  Paper  Co.,  Hamilton,  Ohio. 
Western  Electric  Co.,  New  York  City,  and  elsewhere. 
Inter-Ocean  Steel  Co.,  Chicago,  III. 
Jefferson  Powder  Co.,  Birmingham,  Ala. 
Chicago,  Rock  Island  &  Southern  Ry. 
Magee  Theatre,  Schenectady,  N.  Y. 
Hartman  Furniture  Co.,  Warehouse,  Chicago,  III. 
Beckwith  Stove  Plant,  Dowagiac,  Mich. 
Anderson  Forge  Co.,  Detroit,  Mich. 
Armstrong  Tannery,  Detroit,  Mich. 
Wissmath  Packing  Co.,  Fort  Madison,  la. 
Quartermaster's  Department,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Kling  Brewery,  Detroit,  Mich. 
Capitol  City  Brewery,  Montgomery,  Ala. 
Great  Lakes  Engineering  Co.,  Ashtabula,  Ohio. 
Brunett  Falls  Mfg.  Co.,  Cornell,  Wis. 
Continental  Motor  Mfg.  Co.,  Detroit,  Mich. 
Central  Market  Building,  Detroit,  Mich. 
Government  Light  House  Caissons,  Detroit  River 
Pere  Marquette  R.  R. 
Grand  Rapids  &  Indiana  R.  R. 
Edward  Ford  Plate  Glass  Co.,  Rossford,  Ohio. 
Detroit  Free  Press  Building,  Detroit,  Mich. 
Shepard  Building,  Chicago,  III. 
Press  Building,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 
Oil  Well  Supply  Building,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 
Hamburger  Building,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 
Y.  M.  C.  A.,  Butler,  Pa. 
Y.  M.  C.  A.  Building,  Greensburg,  Pa. 
Y.  M.  C.  A.  Building,  New  Castle,  Pa. 
Y.  M.  C.  A.  Swimming  Pool,  Red  Wing,  Minn. 
Y.  M.  C.  A.  Swimming  Pool,  Fostoria,  Ohio. 
Y.  M.  C.  A.  Swimming  Pool,  St.  Joseph,  Mo. 
Y.  M.  C.  A.  Swimming  Pool,  Burnham.  Pa. 
E.  I.  DuPont  DeNemours  Co.,  Wilmington,  Del. 
M.  H.  McCloskey,  Jr.,  1620  Thompson  St., 

Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Clifton  Mfg.  Co.,  Waco,  Texas. 
Jones  &  Mclaughlin  Steel  Co.,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 


Spelts  Grain  Co.,  Sterling,  Col. 

Estate  of  Charles  M.  Schwab.  Loretto  Road,  Pa. 

A.  G.  Riser,  Contractor  and  Builder,  Tazewell,  Va. 

Ivy  White  Ash  Coal  Co.,  Ivaton,  W.  Va. 

Georges  Creek  Coal  Co.,  Inc.,  Setzel,  Logan  Co.,  W. 

Va. 
John  Griffiths  &  Son  Co.,  1011   Merchants  Loan  & 

Trust  Bldg.,  Chicago,  III. 
The  Gun  Pits  placed  on  lower  Delaware  River  by 

U.  S.  Government. 
Vacuum  Oil  Co.,  Paulsboro,  N.  J. 
Houston  Collieries  Co.,  Maitland,  W.  Va. 
Tug  River  Power  Co.,  Welch,  W.  Va. 
Keystone  Coal  &  Coke  Co.,  Keystone,  W.  Va. 
McDowell  Coal  &  Coke  Co.,  McDowell,  W.  Va. 
Pennsylvania  Rubber  Co.,  Jeannette,  Pa. 
Burroughs  Adding  Machine  Co.,  Detroit,  Mich. 
Cadillac  Motor  Car  Co.,  Detroit,  Mich. 
Swift  &  Company,  South  Omaha  and  Cambridge. 
Boston  &  Maine  Railway. 
Dodge  Bros.,  Detroit,  Mich. 
Sellwood  Park  Swimming  Pool,  Portland,  Ore. 
Water  Tank,  Cojimar,  Cuba. 
Cook  Brewing  Co.,  Evansville,  Ind. 
Frick  &  Lindsay  Building,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 
Heider  Manufacturing  Co.,  Carroll,  Iowa. 
The  Mission  Conception,  San  Antonio,  Texas. 
Los  Angeles  Brewing  Co.,  Los  Angeles,  Calif. 
Sparta  Gas  &  Electric  Co.,  Sparta,  III. 
Jacksonville  Concrete  Co.,  Jacksonville,  Fla. 
Stitzer  Engineering  &  Contracting  Co.,  Philadelphia. 
Turner  &  Stewart,  Camden,  N.  J. 
McClintic-Marshall  Construction  Co..  Pottstown,  Pa. 
Atlantic  City  Gas  Company,  Atlantic  City,  N.  J. 
Bright  &  Co.,  Hazelton,  Pa. 
R.  D.  Burnett  Building,  Birmingham,  Ala. 
U.  S.  Glass  Company,  Butler,  Pa. 
Butler  Concrete  &  Plaster  Co.,  Butler,  Pa. 
Standard  Steel  Car  Co.,  Butler,  Pa. 
10th  Reg.  Armory,  Monongahela,  Pa. 
Moose  Temple,  Monnessen,  Pa. 
U.  S.  Government  Experimental  Mine,  Wallace  Sta.,  Pa. 
U.  P.  Church,  Erie,  Pa. 
St.  Pius  Church,  McKeesport,  Pa. 
Duquesne  Parochial  Schools,  Duquesne,  Pa. 
Pittsburgh  Water  Heater  Co.,  Idlewood,  Pa. 
Boggs  Building,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 
Crafton  High  School,  Crafton,  Pa. 
P.  &  L.  E.  Ry. 

Keystone  Coal  &  Coke  Co.,  Greensburg,  Pa. 
New  Castle  Dry  Goods  Co.,  New  Castle,  Pa. 
Pittsburgh  Coal  Co.,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 
Monongahela  Saw  &  Planing  Mill  Co.,  Monongahela. 

Pa. 

Northern  Power  Co.,  Potsdam,  N.  Y. 
Caledonia  Milling  Co.,  Caledonia,  Mich. 
Henahan  King  Co.,  Toledo,  Ohio. 
Columbus  Machine  &  Tool  Co.,  Columbus,  Ohio. 
J.  M.  Wagenheim  &  Son,  Newark,  Ohio. 
Herman  Gundlach,  Houghton,  Mich. 
Thomas  Culinan,  Providence,  R.  I. 
Ottaray  Canning  Co.,  Ltd.,  Henderson,  N.  C. 
Wayne  County  Farm,  Eloise,  Mich. 
Stark  Brewing  Company,  Canton,  Ohio. 
Penn  Mining  Co.,  Vulcan,  Mich. 
Ledbetter  Manufacturing  Co.,  Rockingham,  N.  C. 
Morgan  Engineering  Co.,  Alliance,  Ohio. 
Rubber  Regenerating  Co.,  Mishawaka,  Ind. 
Prestolite  Co.,  Indianapolis,  Ind. 
Sterling  Silk  Glove  Co.,  Bangor,  Pa. 
Adam  E.  Ferguson  Creamery,  Lansing,  Mich. 
Consolidated  Gas,  Electric  Light  &  Power  Co., 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Bedford  Foundry  &  Machine  Co.,  Bedford,  Ind. 
Thomas  Brothers,  Moosejaw,  Sask. 
Plymouth  Milling  Co.,  Plymouth,  Mich. 
International  Time  Recording  Co.,  Endicott,  N.  Y. 
Dr.  C.  E.  Schmitz,  Cambridge,  Idaho. 
First  National  Bank,  Lestershire,  N.  Y. 
Fonnesbeck  Knitting  Co.,  Ogden,  Utah. 
Cheboygan  Manufacturing  Co.,  Cheboygan,  Mich. 
U.  S.  Gun  Pits  on  the  Delaware  River. 
E.  I.  Dupont  de  Nemours  &  Co.,  Deep  Water  Plant, 

Carney's  Point,  N.  J. 
Penn.  Harris  Hotel,  Harrisburg,  Penna. 
Penna.  Ry.  Co. 

Philadelphia  &  Reading  Ry.  Co. 
Swimming  Pools,  City  of  Philadelphia. 


MASS  CONCRETE  //V  FOUNDAT/OM  WALLS 
WATERPROOFED   THROUGHOUT  W/TH 

TRUSCO/V 
WATERPROOF/MG    PASTE  CO/YCE/VTRATED 


MASS   COS/CRETE   //V  FLOOR    SLAB 
WATERPROOFED     THROUGHOUT  W/TH 
I  TRUSCON 

WATERPROOF/MG   PASTE  COMCEMTRATED 


,CEMEMT   TOPP//VG 
S/M/LARLY   WATERPROOFED 


Waterproofing  mass  concrete  by  integral  method. 


Specification  for  Waterproofing  Mass  Concrete 

by  Integral  Method 


Applicable  to  Standpipes,  Cisterns,  Reservoirs, 
Foundations  and  Similar  Structures 


1.  Intent — It  is  the  intent  of  these  specifications  to  obtain  a  water-tight  concrete 
structure. 

2.  Method— Water-tightness  shall  be  secured  by  the  addition  of    TRUSCON 
Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated,  as  manufactured  by  THE  TRUSCON  LABORA- 
TORIES, Detroit,   Michigan,  to  all  water  used  to  temper  the  dry  mixture  of  cement 
and  aggregate,  in  proportions  and  mixed  as  directed  below. 

3.  Ingredients  and  Proportions  for  Concrete — The  concrete  composing  the  main 
body  of  the  structure  shall  consist  of  one  (1)  part  cement,  two  (2)  parts  of  sand,  and 
four  (4)  parts  of  stone,  each  to  meet  the  following  requirements: 

(a)  The  cement  shall  be  a  high  grade  Portland,  which  has  been  carefully  tested  and  found  to  satisfactorily  pass 
the  requirements  of  the  Standard  Specifications  of  The  American  Society  for  Testing  Materials,  and  preferably 
ground  so  that  eighty  per  cent  (80%)  shall  pass  a  standard  two-hundred  (200)  mesh  sieve. 

(b)  The  sand  shall  consist  of  spherical  grains  of  any  hard  rock  that  is  practically  free  from  clay,  absolutely  free 
from  organic  matter,  and  uniformly  graded  in  size  from  coarse  to  fine. 

(c)  The  stone  shall  be  screened  from  gravel,  and  shall  for  sixty  per  cent  (60%)  of  its  bulk  be  uniformly  graded  be- 
tween diameters  of  one  (1)  and  one  and  one-half  (lH")  inches,  and  for  forty  per  cent  (40%)  of  its  bulk  be  uni- 
formly graded  between  diameters  of  one  quarter  ( J4)  and  one  (1)  inch.     A  hard  crushed  trap  rock  may  be  sub- 
stituted for  gravel  if  screened  to  meet  the  requirements  indicated. 

4.  Mixing — The  dry  mixture  of  cement,  sand  and  stone  in  the  above  proportions 
shall  be  tempered  to  a  medium  wet  consistency  with  water  to  which  one  (1)  part  of 
TRUSCON   Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated,  has  been  added  as  directed  by  the 
manufacturers,  for  every  thirty-six  (36)  parts  of  water. 

5.  Placing — All  the  concrete  shall  be  placed  in  one  continuous  operation,  each 
pouring  being  thoroughly  spaded  to  insure  uniform  density.    In  cases  where  joints  are 
absolutely  unavoidable,  very  special  care   shall  be  taken  to  clean  and  roughen  the 
old  surface  and  have  it  thoroughly  wet  and  slush-coated  immediately  before  placing 
additional  concrete. 


TRUSCON 
WATERPROOF/NG  PASTE  CONCENTRATED 


2  "  CEMENT  F/N/SH 
WATERPROOFED  W/TH 

TRUSCON 
WATERPROOF/NG  PASTE  CONCENTRATED 


Waterproofing  concrete  or  masonry  by  means  of  waterproofed  plaster  coat  applied  to 

interior  surfaces. 


Specifications  for  Waterproofing  Concrete  and 

General  Masonry  Structures  by  Means  of 

Waterproofed  Plaster  Coat 


Applicable  to  Cisterns,  Reservoirs,  Foundations,  Basements, 
Tunnels,  Subways  and  Similar  Structures 


1.  Intent — It  is  the  intent  of  these  specifications  to  obtain  a  water-tight  structure. 

2.  Method — Water-tightness  shall  be  secured  by  plastering  the  interior  surface 
of  the  structure  with  a  continuous  coat  of  Portland  cement  mortar  waterproofed  with 
TRUSCON     Waterproofing    Paste,     Concentrated,     as    manufactured    by    THE 
TRUSCON  LABORATORIES,  Detroit,  Michigan. 

3.  Ingredients  and  Proportions  of  Waterproofed  Plaster  Coat — The  mortar  com- 
posing the  plaster  coat  shall  consist  of  one  (1)  part  of  cement  and  two  (2)  parts  of  sand, 
to  meet  the  following  requirements: 

(a)  The  cement  shall  be  a  high  grade  Portland,  which  has  been  carefully  tested  and  found  to  satisfactorily  meet 
the  requirements  of  the  Standard  Specifications  of  the  American  Society  for  Testing  Materials  and  preferably 
ground  so  that  eighty  per  cent  (80%)  shall  pass  a  standard  two  hundred  (200)  mesh  sieve. 

(b)  The  sand  shall  consist  of  spherical  grains  of  any  hard  rock  that  is  practically  free  from  clay,  absolutely  free  from 
organic  matter,  and  uniformly  graded  in  size  from  coarse  to  fine. 

4.  Preparation  of  the  Coating — The  waterproofed  cement  mortar  shall  be  pre- 
pared by  thoroughly  tempering  (to  required  consistency)  a  dry  mixture  of  one  (1)  part 
of  cement  and  two  (2)  parts  of  sand,  with  water  to  which  TRUSCON   Waterproofing 
Paste,  Concentrated,  has  been  added  in  the  proportion  of  one  (1)  part  of  Paste  to 
eighteen  (18)  parts  of  water,  as  directed  by  the  manufacturers. 

5.  Preparation  of  Surface  to  be  Coated — Before  plastering  the  cement  mortar  on 
the  hardened  concrete,  the  surface  of  same  shall  be  treated  as  indicated  in  the  following: 

(a)  The  hardened  surface  shall  be  mechanically  roughened  by  chipping  and  very  thoroughly  cleaned  with  a  heavy 
wire  broom,  so  as  to  remove  all  dust  and  dirt.     A  jet  of  steam  shall  be  employed  to  clean  the  wall,  if  available. 

(b)  To  the  mechanically  cleaned  surface  apply  with  a  large  acid  brush,  a  liberal  ccat  of  one  to  ten  (1 :10)  solution  of 
Hydrochloric  Acid.     (Muriatic  Acid).     Allow  the  acid  to  remain  until  it  has  exhausted  itself,  which  will  require 
at  least  ten  minutes.     Apply  a  second  coat  of  acid  solution  if  the  first  does  not  sufficiently  clean  and  expose  the 
surface  of  the  aggregate. 

(c)  With  a  hose  under  good  pressure,  slush  the  surface  so  as  to  remove  the  salts  and  locse  particles  resulting  from 
the  action  of  the  acid.     Continue  the  slushing  until  the  old  concrete  is  thoroughly  cleaned  and  soaked  to  its 
full  hydrometric  capacity.     Thoroughly  wire-brush  the  surface  so  as  to  remove  the  particles  which  have  been 
loosened  by  the  action  of  the  acid. 

(d)  To  the  cleaned  saturated  surface  apply  with  a  strong  fibre  brush  a  coating  of  pure  cement  mixed  to  a  thick, 
creamy  consistency  with  water  to  which  TRUSCON  Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated,  has  been    added  in 
the  proportion  of  one  (1)  part  of  Paste  to  eighteen  (18)  parts  of  water.     Rub  in  vigorously  so  as  to  fill  all  crevices 
and  cavities  produced  by  the  action  of  the  acid. 


In  applying  waterproofed 
plaster  coat  to  either  in- 
terior or  exterior  of  brick 
wall  the  acid  treatment 
is  ur  necessary.  Surface 
should  be  thoroughly  wet 
before  applying  plaster 
ccat. 


CEMENT  PLASTER   COAT 
WATERPROOFED    W/TH 

TRUSCON 
WATERPROOF/NG  PASTE  CONCENTRATED 


2"  CEMENT   F/N/SH 
WATERPROOFED    W/TH 

TRUSCO/V 
WATERPROOF/NG  PASTE  CONCENTRAT£D 


'•'ffi.  V-'-^'ftx^?-^^^ 


Waterproofing  concrete  or  masonry  by  means  of  waterproofed  plaster  coat 
applied  to  exterior  surfaces. 


6.  Application    of   Coating   to    Sides — Immediately    after    applying   the    slush 
coat,  the  first  coat  of  waterproofed  cement  mortar  shall  be  applied  to  a  thickness  of 
three-eighths  of  an  inch  0/s")  directly  on  the  slush  coat,  and  well  troweled  and  rubbed 
into  the  crevices  of  the  surface.    This  first  coat  shall  be  lightly  scratched  before  show- 
ing initial  set.    Before  this  first  coat  has  reached  its  final  set,  the  second  coat  shall  be 
applied,  of  equal  thickness,  so  as  to  give  a  full  average  thickness  of  three-quarters  of 
an  inch  (24")-    Most  special  care  shall  be  exercised  to  apply  this  finish  coat  before  the 
first  coat  has  reached  its  final  set.    The  finish  coat  shall  be  thoroughly  floated  to  an 
even  surface  and  subsequently  troweled  free  from  any  porous  imperfections. 

7.  Floor  Coating — The  floors  shall  be  prepared  and  treated  exactly  as  indicated 
above,  and  finished  with  a  waterproof  cement  mortar  to  a  thickness  of  two  inches  (2")- 
Special  care  should  be  exercised  to  bond  the  wall  coating  to  the  floor  coating,  so  as  to 
make  the  waterproofed  coating  continuous  over  the  entire  surface. 

8.  Pressure — Where  water  is  running  through  the  wall,  proper  drainage  must  be 
provided  by  drilling  holes  and  inserting  tubes  in  the  wall,  to  concentrate  the  flow  of 
water.    With  the  pressure  relieved,  the  waterproofed  plaster  coat  shall  be  applied  to 
the  drained  portions  of  the  wall.    The  drainage  pipes  shall  remain  open  until  the  water- 
proofed plaster  coat  has  thoroughly  set  and  is  capable  of  resisting  the  pressure  of  its 
own  adhesive  strength,  when  the  drainage  pipes  shall  be  closed  with  suitable  plugs  and 
overcoated  with  the  waterproofed  cement  mortar. 

9.  Inspection— When  hardened,  the  waterproofed  plaster  coat  shall  be  sounded 
with  a  light  hammer  and  all  loose  and  defective  plaster  shall  be  cut  out  and  replaced. 


Specifications  for  Waterproofing  Cement  Stucco 

1.  Intent — It  is  the  intent  of  these  specifications  to  obtain  a  sound,  permanent 
and  waterproof  stucco. 

2.  Materials — The  materials  composing  the  stucco  shall  consist  of: 

(a)  Portland  cement  which  has  been  carefully  tested  and  found  to  satisfactorily  meet  the  requirements  of  the  Speci- 
fications of  the  American  Society  for  Testing  Materials. 

(b)  Sand  which  is  practically  free  from  organic  matter  and  uniformly  graded  in  size  from  coarse  to  fine. 

(c)  Hydrated  lime  that  is  uniform  in  quality  and  perfectly  hydrated. 

(d)  TRUSCON  Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated,  as  manufactured  by  THE    TRUSCON    LABORATORIES, 
Detroit,  Michigan. 

3.  Proportions — The  proportions  of  the  above  specified  materials  by  volume, 
shall  be  five  (5)  parts  of  cement,  twelve  (12)  parts  of  sand,  and  one  (1)  part  of  hydrated 
lime.     One  (1)  part  of    TRUSCON  Waterproofing  Paste,   Concentrated,   shall  be 
added  to  every  eighteen  (18)  parts  of  water  used  to  temper  the  mortar. 

4.  Mixing — The  cement  and  hydrated  lime,  after  being  thoroughly  mixed  dry 
to  uniform  color,  shall  be  added  to  the  dry  sand  and  the  whole  manipulated  until 
evenly  mixed.     The  dry  mixture  shall  then  be  tempered  to  the  correct  working  con- 
sistency with  water  to  which  TRUSCON    Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated,  has 
been  added  in  proportion  specified.     The  mortar  must  be  thoroughly  worked  until 
perfectly  homogeneous.  This  composition  shall  only  be  made  up  in  lots  that  can  be 
immediately  applied,  and  any  material  that  has  been  mixed  with  water  over  thirty 
(30)  minutes  before  applying  shall  be  rejected. 

5.  Application — All  walls  shown  on  elevation  for  stucco  finish  shall  be  two-coat 
work.     The  first  coat  shall  be  prepared  as  specified  above,  with  the  addition  of  long 
cow  hair  for  keying  when  applied  to  metal  lath.     The  face  of  the  first  coat  shall  be 
thoroughly  scratched  over  to  form  a  key  for  the  finish  coat,  which  shall  be  applied  to 
a  total  thickness  of  one  inch  (1"),  when  the  first  coat  has  set  sufficiently  hard  to  safely 
hold  it.     The  finish  coat  shall  be  carefully  floated  from  any  porous  imperfections. 

When  plastering  over  a  masonry  surface,  special  care  must  be  taken  to  thoroughly 
saturate  the  masonry  with  water  and  the  plaster  applied  at  once. 

6.  Drying — Special  care  shall  be  taken  to  avoid  too  rapid  drying.     If  in  direct 
rays  of  the  sun,  the  stucco  shall  be  protected  with  a  damp  canvas  or  burlap,  and  when 
sufficiently  resistant,  shall  be  frequently  sprinkled  with  water. 

7.  No  exterior  plastering  shall  be  permitted  until  all  interior  partitions  are  stud- 
ded up  and  completely  braced. 


PART   III  ;••;/,:     :;••••.:;::•   : 

A  Few  More  Representative  Building  Operations  Where 
Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated 

Has  Been  Used 


Victor  Talking  Machine  Co.,  Camden,  N.  J.      Ballinger  &  Perrot,  Architects.     Irwin  &  Leighton  General  Contractors 

This  building  is  located  near  the  Delaware  River,  the  basement  of  the  working  establishment  being  some  five  or  six  feet  below  high  tide. 
Foundation  work  waterproofed  with  Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated. 


Carter,  Carter  &  Meiggs  Building,  Boston,  Mass. 
Densmore  &  Le  Clear,  Architects, 
George  A.  Fuller  Co.,  Contractors 

Basement  waterproofed  against  heavy  tide  water  pressure 
with  Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated. 


Merchants  Refrigerating  Co., 

New  York,  N.  Y. 

John  B.  Snooks  &  Sons,  Architects 
Turner  Construction  Co., 

Contractor 

This  building  was  used  by  the 
United  States  Government  for 
storage  of  food  products  for  the 
Army  and  Navy.  Entire  sub- 
structure of  this  building  is 
waterproofed  with  Truscon 
Waterproofing  Paste,  Concen- 
trated. 


Van  Tine  Building,  New  York.  N.  Y. 

Basement  waterproofed  with  Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated. 


Residence  of  James  Deering,  Miami,  Florida 
F.  Burrall  Hoffman  Jr.,  and  Paul  Chalfin,  Associate  Architects;       John  B.  Orr,  Stucco  Contractor 

Stucco  Waterproofed  Throughout  with  Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated 


Detroit  News  Building,  Detroit,  Michigan.     Albert  Kahn,  Architect,  Ernest  Wilby,  Associate 

Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated,  used  in  all  foundation  work. 


Rogers  Peet  Building,  New  York,  N.  Y.     Townsend,  Steinle  &  Haskell,  Architects 

Basement  waterproofed  with  Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated. 


New  Plant  Kansas  City  Light  and  Power  Co. 

Sargeant  &  Lundy,  Chicago,  Arch  i  tec  ts'and  Engineers 

Foundation  Company,  New  York  City,  Contractors 


Pennsylvania  Freight  Terminal,  Chicago,  111. 

Designed  and  constructed  under  the  direction  of  Thos  Rodd,  Chief  Engineer  Union  Station  Co.,  Robert  Trimball,  Chief  Engineer 
Maintenance  of  Way,  Pennsylvania  Lines,  Geo.  A.  Fuller  &  Co.,  General  Contractors 

Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated,  used  in  construction  of  these  buildings. 


Ford  Motor  Co.,  Service  Building,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated,  used  in  construction  of  this  building. 


Mulford  Residence,  Miami,  Florida.     W.  C.  De  Garmo,  Architect,  J.  B.  Orr,  Stucco  Contractor 

Stucco  waterproofed  throughout  with  Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated. 


Construction  of  the  Bevis  Hill  Reservoir,  Schenectady,    N.  Y. 

Capacity  twenty  million  gallons,  C.  C.  McWilliams,  Supt.  Bureau  of  Water,  City  of  Schenectady.    Concrete  waterproofed  throughout 

with  Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated. 


Alan  Realty  Building,  New  York,  N.  Y.      R 

All  under  gra 


,  N.  Y.      Rouse  &  Goldstone,  Architects,  Waterproofing  &  Construction  Co.,  Waterproofing  Contractors 

:de  foundation  work  waterproofed  with  Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated. 


Residence,  E.  C.  McGraw,  Miami,  Florida.      George  C.  Pfeiffer,  Architect,  John  B.  Orr,' Stucco  Contractor 

All  stucco  waterproofed  with  Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated. 


Residence  of  James  MacRoberts,  Miami,  Florida.     August  Geiger,  Architect,  J.  B.  Orr,  Stucco  Contractor 

All  stucco  waterproofed  with  Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated. 


New  Western  Theological  Seminary,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.     Thomas  Hannah,  Architect 

All  concrete  waterproofed  with  Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated. 


8  feet  of  Flood 

Water  but 

Basement 

stayed  Dry. 


Warehouse  of  George  C.  Buell  &  Co.,  Rochester,  N.  Y.     Walker,  Livingston  &  Brackett,  Architects 

The  basement  of  this  building  was  waterproofed  with  Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated.    It  withstood  an  exceedingly  difficult 
practical  test  during  the  Rochester  flood  of  1916.    See  letter  from  architects  page  57. 


Rochester  Sewage  Disposal  Plant,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 
Department  of  Engineering,  City  of  Rochester,  Engineers  C.  Arthur  Poole,  Supervising  Engineer 

All  concrete  waterproofed  throughout  the  mass  with  Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated. 


L.  G.  Highbyman,  Residence,  Miami,  Florida.     August  Geiger,  Architect,  J.  B.  Orr,  Stucco  Contractor 

All  stucco  waterproofed  with  Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated. 


Hanna  Residence,  Miami,  Florida.     August  Geiger,  Architect,  J.  B.  Orr,  Stucco  Contractor 

All  stucco  waterproofed  with  Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated. 


Lincoln  Apartments,  Miami,  Fa.     August  Geiger,  Architect,  J.  B.  Orr,  Stucco  Contractor,  St.  John  Construction  Co.,  Gen.  Contractors-' 

All  stucco  waterproofed  with  Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated. 


Construction  of  concrete  water  tank  for  Bethlehem  Chili  Iron  Mines  Co.,  Cruz  Grande,  Chili.      C.  H.  Kuster,  Engineer 
All  concrete  waterproofed  with  Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated. 


niutiti 

(lijitjjii 


Vinton  Building,  Detroit,  Michigan.     Albert  Kahn,  Architect,  Ernest  Wilby,  Associate 

Foundations  waterproofed  with  Truscon  Waterproofing  Paste,  Concentrated. 


List  of  Illustrations 

Page 

Alan  Realty  Co.,  New  York  City 39 

Alan  Realty  Co.,  New  York  City 81 

Asheville  Tank,  Asheville,  N.  C 58 

Arlington  Gas  Tanks,  Arlington,  Mass 59 

Agency  Hill  Reservoir,  Muskogee,  Okla 60 

Abrasive  Co.,  Bridesburg,  Pa 61 

American  Can  Co.,  Kansas  City,  Mo 72 

Bangor  Maine  High  School,  Bangor,  Maine 57 

Buell  Warehouse,  Rochester,  N.  Y. .  .  .  t : 57 

Buell  Warehouse,  Rochester,  N.  Y 84 

Bevis  Hill  Reservoir,  Schenectady,  N.  Y 80 

Bethlehem  Chili  Iron  Mines  Co.,  Cruz  Grande,  Chili 86 

Chalmers  Motor  Co.,  Detroit,  Mich 27 

Cherry  Street  Wharf,  Philadelphia,  Pa 40 

Cornell  Stadium,  Ithaca,  N.  Y 54 

Carter,  Carter  &  Meiggs  Building,  Boston,  Mass 74 

Daly  City  Municipal  Reservoir,  Daly  City,  Calif 62 

Deering  Residence,  Miami,  Fla 76 

Detroit  News  Building,  Detroit,  Mich 76 

Elks  Building  New  Orleans,  La 56 

Edison  Illuminating  Co.,  Detroit,  Mich 73 

Ford  Service  Building,  Long  Island  City 55 

Federal  Reserve  Bank,  Atlanta,  Ga 55 

Foot  Schulze  &  Co.,  St.  Paul,  Minn 72 

Ford  Service  Building,  Philadelphia,  Pa 79 

Grand  Central  Terminal,  New  York  City 14 

Gowan-Lenning-Brown  Building,  Duluth,  Minn 62 

Hotel  Statler,  St.  Louis,  Mo 53 

Hotel  Biltmore,  New  York  City 56 

Highbyman  Residence,  Miami,  Fla ~.< 85 

Hanna  Residence,  Miami,  Fla 85 

Iron  Removal  &  Filtration  Plant,  Camp  Funston,  Kas 60 

Krolik  Co.,  Detroit,  Mich 52 

Kansas  City  Light  &  Power  Co.,  Kansas  City,  Mo 78 

Lincoln  Motor  Co.,  Detroit,  Michigan 21 

Lincoln  Apartments,  Miami,  Fla 86 

Municipal  Pier,  Philadelphia,  Pa 57 

Merchants  Refrigerating  Co.,  New  York  City 74 

Mulford  Residence,  Miami  Fla 80 

McGraw  Residence,  Miami,  Fla 82 

MacRoberts'  Residence,  Miami,    Fla 82 

Notre  Dame  Cathedral,  New  York  City 52 

New  Sheeter  Building,  Charleston,  S.  C 59 

New  Orleans  Country  Club,  New  Orleans,  La 61 

Oshkosh  Gas  Co.,  Oshkosh,  Wis 60 

Pennsylvania  Freight  Terminal,  Chicago,  111 78 

Rheinstein  &  Haas  Building,  New  York  City 53 

Rochester  Sewage  Disposal  Plant,  Rochester,  N.  Y 54 

Rogers  Peet  Building,  New  York  City 77 

Rochester  Sewage  Disposal  Plant,  Rochester,  N.  Y 84 

St.  Paul  Public  Library,  St.  Paul,  Minn 43 

Stand  Pipe,  Singson  Water  Works,  Philippine  Islands 54 

Soho  Baths,  Pittsburgh,  Pa 58 

Smithfield  Street  Public  Comfort  Station,  Pittsburgh,  Pa 62 

Transportation  Building,  Atlanta,  Ga 56 

Tacony  Ordnance  Co.,  Tacony,   Pa 61 

Victor  Talking  Machine  Co.,  Camden,  N.  J 71 

Van  Tine  Building,  New  York  City 75 

Vinton  Building,  Detroit,  Mich 87 

Ward  Bakery,  East  Orange,  N.  J 37 

Western  Theological  Seminary,  Pittsburgh,  Pa 83 

Y.  W.  C.  A.  Swimming  Pool,  Philadelphia,  Pa 59 


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